Matt Williams, Author at Universe Today

November 17, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Tertiary Period

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When it comes to the geological timeline, there are several periods that scientists and biologists recognize as being of extreme importance to the development of life on Earth. There’s the Hadean period, which began with the creation of the Earth and was marked by the formations of the oceans and atmosphere. Or the Cambrian period, when the massive continent of Pangaea broke up and allowed for the explosion of life which led to the development of all modern Phyla. But when it comes to us mammals, perhaps the most important period was the one known as the Tertiary Period. This period began 65 million years ago and ended roughly 1.8 million years ago and bore witness to some major geological, biological and climatological events. This included the current configuration of the continents, the cooling of global temperatures, and the rise of mammals as the planet’s dominant vertebrates. It followed the Cretaceous period and was superseded by the Quaternary.

In terms of major events, the Tertiary period began with the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs in the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, at the start of the Cenozoic era, and lasted to the beginning of the most recent Ice Age at the end of the Pliocene epoch. In terms of geology, there was a great deal of tectonic activity that continued from the previous era, culminating in the splitting of Gondwana and the collision of the Indian landmass with the Eurasian plate. This led to the formation of the Himalayas, the gradual creation of the continent of Australia (a haven for the non-placental, marsupial mammals), the separation South America from West Africa and its connection to North America, and Antarctica taking its current position below the South Pole. In terms of climate, the period was marked by widespread cooling, beginning in the Paleocene with tropical-to-moderate worldwide temperatures and ending before the first extensive glaciation at the start of the Quaternary.

In terms of species evolution, this period was of extreme importance to modern life. By the beginning of the period, mammals replaced reptiles as the dominant vertebrates on the planet. In addition, all non-avian dinosaurs (referring to terrestrial dinosaurs and not their avian descendants) had all become extinct by the beginning of this period. Modern types of birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates were already numerous at the beginning of this period but also continued to appeared early on, and many modern families of flowering plants evolved. And last, but certainly not least (at least for us human folk), the earliest recognizable hominid relatives of humans appeared. One striking example of this is the Proconsul Primate, a tree-dwelling Primate that existed from roughly 23 to 17 million years ago and who’s fossilized remains have been found today in modern Kenya, Uganda and other East African locales.

We have written many articles about Tertiary Period for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the Quaternary Period, and here’s an article about the asteroid extinction theory.

If you’d like more info on the Tertiary Period, check out the USGS Geologic Time Scale, and here’s a link to another article about the Tertiary Period.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Tertiary_extinction_event
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana#Cenozoic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proconsul_%28genus%29
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur

November 17, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Super Magnets

Permanent Magnet — Super Magnets, the strongest type of permanent magnets

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Magnets are not only a source of endless fun – for children and children of all ages! They also happen to have endless industrial applications. But when it comes to the high-tech industry, the people who rely on magnetic materials to build appliances, electronics, or even spaceships, only one type of magnet will do. These are known as Rare Earth or Super Magnets, the kind that are used in MRI machines, computer hard drives, electric and hybrid motors, audio speakers, electric guitars, and race car engines. In spite of their name, the elements used to make super magnets are actually quite common, but were rarely found in large enough quantities to be considered economically viable. However, since the 90’s these magnets have become cheap and widely available, and are even being considered for additional processes.

The term super magnet is a broad term and encompasses several families of rare-earth magnets that include seventeen elements in the periodic table; namely scandium, yttrium, and the fifteen lanthanides. First developed in the 1970’s and 80’s, super magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnets ever made, are ferromagnetic, meaning that like iron they can be magnetized, and have Curie temperatures that are below room temperature. This means that in their pure form, their magnetism only appears at low temperatures. However, since they can form compounds with transition metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, metals that have Curie temperatures well above room temperature, they can be used effectively at higher temperatures as well. The main advantage they have over conventional magnets is that their greater strength allows for smaller, lighter magnets to be used, ones that can do the same job but take up less space and require less material.

Super magnets can be broken down into two categories. First, there is the neodymium magnet, which is made from an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron to form the Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. This material is currently the strongest known type of permanent magnet and was developed in the 1980’s. It is typically used in the construction of head actuators in computer hard drives and has many electronic applications, such as electric motors, appliances, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The second type of super magnet is the samarium-cobalt variety, an alloy of samarium and cobalt with the chemical formula of SmCo5. This second-strongest type of rare Earth magnet is also used in electronic motors, turbomachinery, and because of its high temperature range tolerance may also have many applications for space travel, such as cryogenics and heat resistant machinery.

We have written many articles about magnets for Universe Today. Here’s an article about where to buy magnets, and here’s an article about what magnets are made of.

If you’d like more info on Super Magnets, check out Rare Earth Magnetics Homepage, and here’s a link to Wikipedia: Rare Earth Magnets.

We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about Magnetism. Listen here, Episode 42: Magnetism Everywhere.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare-earth_magnet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarium-cobalt_magnet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium_magnet
http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy99/phy99010.htm

November 12, 2010August 26, 2021 by Matt Williams

How Much Does the Earth Weigh?

Winter Solstice — Earth as viewed from the cabin of the Apollo 11 spacecraft. Credit: NASA

Earth is, by any reckoning, a pretty big place. Ever since humanity first began the process of exploring, philosophers and scholars have sought to understand its exact dimensions. In addition to wanting to quantify its diameter, circumference, and surface area, they have also sought to understand just how much weight it packs on.

In terms of mass, Earth is also a pretty big customer. Compared to the other bodies of the Solar System, it is the largest and densest of the rocky planets. And over the course of the past few centuries, our methods for determining its mass have improved – leading to the current estimate of 5.9736×10²⁴kg (1.31668×10²⁵ lbs).

Size and Composition:

With a mean radius of 6,371.0 km (3,958.8 mi), Earth is the largest terrestrial planet in our Solar System. This means that it is composed primarily of silicate rock and metals, which are differentiated between a solid inner core, an outer core of molten metal, and a silicate mantle and crust made of silicate material.

This cutaway of planet Earth shows the familiar exterior of air, water and land as well as the interior: from the mantle down to the outer and inner cores. Currents in hot, liquid iron-nickel in the outer core create our planet's protective but fluctuating magnetic field. Credit: Kelvinsong / Wikipedia — *This cutaway of planet Earth shows the familiar exterior of air, water and land as well as the interior: from the mantle down to the outer and inner cores. Credit: Kelvinsong / Wikipedia*

Earth is composed approximately of 32% iron, 30% oxygen, 15% silicon, 14% magnesium, 3% sulfur, 2% nickel, 1.5% calcium, and 1.4% aluminum, with the remaining made up of trace elements. Meanwhile, the core region is primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.

Mass and Density:

Earth is also the densest planet in the Solar System, with a mean density of 5.514 g/cm³ (0.1992 lbs/cu in). Between its size, composition, and the distribution of its matter, the Earth has a mass of 5.9736×10²⁴kg (~5.97 billion trillion metric tons) or 1.31668×10²⁵ lbs (6.585 billion trillion tons).

But since the Earth’s density is not even throughout – i.e. it is denser towards the core than it is at its outer layers – its mass is also not evenly distributed. In fact, the density of the inner core (at 12.8 to 13.1 g/cm³; 0.4624293 lbs/cu in), while the density of the crust is just 2.2–2.9 g/cm³ (0.079 – 0.1 lbs/cu in).

*The layers of the Earth, a differentiated planetary body. Credit: Wikipedia Commons/Surachit*

This overall mass and density are also what causes Earth to have a gravitational pull equivalent to 9.8 m/s² (32.18 ft/s²), which is defined as 1 g.

History of Study:

Modern scientists discerned what the mass of the Earth was by studying how things fall towards it. Gravity is created by mass, so the more mass an object has, the more gravity it will pull with. If you can calculate how an object is being accelerated by the gravity of an object, like Earth, you can determine its mass.

In fact, astronomers didn’t accurately know the mass of Mercury or Venus until they finally put spacecraft into orbit around them. They had rough estimates, but once there were orbiting spacecraft, they could make the final mass calculations. We know the mass of Pluto because we can calculate the orbit of its moon Charon.

*The Geoid 2005 model, which was based on data of two satellites (CHAMP and GRACE) plus surface data. Credit: GFZ*

And by studying other planets in our Solar System, scientists have had a chance to improve the methods and instruments used to study Earth. From all of this comparative analysis, we have learned that Earth outstrips Mars, Venus, and Mercury in terms of size, and all other planets in the Solar System in terms of density.

In short, the saying “it’s a small world” is complete rubbish!

We have written many articles about Earth for Universe Today. Here’s Ten Interesting Facts About Earth, What is the Diameter of the Earth?, How Strong is the Force of Gravity on Earth?, What is the Rotation of the Earth?

If you’d like more info on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

Sources:

November 11, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Subatomic Particles

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Not long ago, scientists believed that the smallest part of matter was the atom; the indivisible, indestructible, base unit of all things. However, it was not long before scientists began to encounter problems with this model, problems arising out of the study of radiation, the laws of thermodynamics, and electrical charges. All of these problems forced them to reconsider their previous assumptions about the atom being the smallest unit of matter and to postulate that atoms themselves were made up of a variety of particles, each of which had a particular charge, function, or “flavor”. These they began to refer to as Subatomic Particles, which are now believed to be the smallest units of matter, ones that composenucleons and atoms.

Whereas protons, neutrons and electrons have always been considered to be the fundamental particles of an atom, recent discoveries using atomic accelerators have shown that there are actually twelve different kinds of elementary subatomic particles, and that protons and neutrons are actually made up of smaller subatomic particles. These twelve particles are divided into two categories, known as Leptons and Quarks. There are six different kinds, or “flavors”, of quarks (named because of their unusual behavior). These include up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom quark, each of which possesses a charge that is expressed as a fraction (+2/3 for up, top and charm,-1/3 for down, bottom and strange) and have variable masses. There are also six different types of Leptons, which include Electrons, Muons, Taus, Electron Neutrinos, Muon Neutrinos, and Tau Neutrinos. Whereas electrons and Muons both have a negative charge of -1 (Muons having greater mass), Neutrinos have no charge and are extremely difficult to detect.

In addition to elementary particles, composite particles are another category of subatomic particles. Whereas elementary particles are not made up of other particles, composite particlesare bound states of two or more elementary particles, such as protons or atomic nuclei. For example, a proton is made of two Up quarks and one Down quark, while the atomic nucleus of helium-4 is composed of two protons and two neutrons.In addition, there are also the subatomic particles that fall under the heading of Gauge Bosons, which were identified using the same methods as Leptons and Quarks. These are classified as “force carriers”, i.e. particles that act as carriers for the fundamental forces of nature. These include photons that are associated with electromagnetism, gravitons that are associated with gravity, the three W and Z bosons of weak nuclear forces, and the eight gluons of strong nuclear forces. Scientists also predict the existence of several more, what they refer to as “hypothetical” particles, so the list is expected to grow.

Today, there are literally hundreds of known subatomic particles, most of which were either the result of cosmic rays interacting with matter or particle accelerator experiments.

We have written many articles about the subatomic particles for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the atomic nucleus, and here’s an article about the atomic theory.

If you’d like more info on the Atom, check out the Background on Atoms, and here’s a link to the NASA’s Understanding the Atom Page.

We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about the Composition of the Atom. Listen here, Episode 164: Inside the Atom.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleon
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/subatomic.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_boson
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles

November 11, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Star Cluster

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There are few things in astronomy more awe inspiring and spellbinding than the birth of a star. Even though we now understand how they are formed, the sheer magnitude of it is still enough to stir the imagination of even the most schooled and cynical academics. Still, there is some degree of guesswork and chance when it comes to where stars will be born and what kind of stars they will become. For example, while some stars are single field stars (like our Sun), others form in groups of two (binary) or more, sometimes much more. This is what is known as a Star Cluster, by definition, a group of stars that share a common origin and are gravitationally bound for some length of time.

Thereare two basic categories of star clusters: Globular and Open (aka. Galactic) star clusters. Globular clusters are roughly spherical groupings of stars that range from 10,000 to several million stars packed into regions ranging from 10 to 30 light years across. They commonly consist of very old Population II stars – which are just a few hundred million years younger than the universe itself – and are mostly yellow and red. Open clusters, on the other hand, are very different. Unlike the spherically distributed globulars, open clusters are confined to the galactic plane and are almost always found within the spiral arms of galaxies. They are generally made up of young stars, up to a few tens of millions of years old, with a few rare exceptions that are as old as a few billion years. Open clusters also contain only a few hundred members within a region of up to about 30 light-years. Being much less densely populated than globular clusters, they are much less tightly gravitationally bound, and over time, will become disrupted by the gravity of giant molecular clouds and other clusters.

Star clusters are particularly useful to astronomers as they provide a way to study and model stellar evolution and ages. By estimating the age of globular clusters, scientists were able to get a more accurate picture of how old the universe is, putting it at roughly 13 billion years of age. In addition, the location of star clusters and galaxies is believed to be a good indication of the physics of the early universe. This is based on aspects of the Big Bang theory where it is believed that immediately after the creation event, following a period of relatively homogenous distribution; cosmic matter slowly gravitated to areas of higher concentration. In this way, star clusters and the position of galaxies provide an indication of where matter was more densely distributed when the universe was still young.

Some popular examples of star clusters, many of which are visible to the naked eye, include Pleiades, Hyades, the Beehive Cluster and the star nursery within the Orion Nebula.

We have written many articles about star cluster for Universe Today. Here’s an article about a massive star cluster discovered, and here are some amazing star cluster wallpapers.

If you’d like more information on stars, check out Hubblesite’s News Releases about Stars, and here’s the stars and galaxies homepage.

We’ve done many episodes of Astronomy Cast about stars. Listen here, Episode 12: Where Do Baby Stars Come From?

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_cluster
http://universe-review.ca/F06-star-cluster.htm
http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/stellarevolution_clusters.html
http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/s/star_cluster.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_populations#Populations_III.2C_II.2C_and_I
http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/g/galaxy_formation_and_evolution.htm

November 11, 2010April 26, 2016 by Matt Williams

Solar Day

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Since the dawn of time, human beings have relied on the cycles of the sun, the moon, and the constellations through the zodiac in order to measure time. The most basic of these was the motion of the Sun as it traced an apparent path through the sky, beginning in the East and ending in the West. This procession, by definition, is what is known as a Solar Day. Originally, it was thought that this motion was the result of the Sun moving around the Earth, much like the Moon, celestial objects and stars seemed to do. However, beginning with Copernicus’ heliocentric model, it has since been known that this motion is due to the daily rotation of the earth around the Sun’s polar axis.

Up until the 1950’s, two types of Solar time were used by astronomers to measure the days of the year. The first, known as Apparent Solar Time, is measured in accordance with the observable motion of the Sun as it moves through the sky (hence the term apparent). The length of a solar day varies throughout the year, a result of the Earth’s elliptical orbit and axial tilt. In this model, the length of the day varies and the accumulated effect is a seasonal deviation of up to 16 minutes from the mean. The second type, Solar Mean Time, was devised as a way of resolving this conflict. Conceptually, Mean solar time is based on a fictional Sun that is considered to move at a constant rate of 360° in 24 hours along the celestial meridian. One mean day is 24 hours in length, each hour consisting of 60 minutes, and each minute consisting of 60 seconds. Though the amount of daylight varies significantly throughout the year, the length of a mean solar day is kept constant, unlike that of an apparent solar day.

The measure of time in both of these models depends on the rotation of the Earth. In both models, the time of day is not plotted based on the position of the Sun in the sky, but on the hour angle that it produces – i.e. the angle through which the earth would have to turn to bring the meridian of the point directly under the sun. Nowadays both kinds of solar time stand in contrast to newer kinds of time measurement, introduced from the 1950s and onwards which were designed to be independent of earth rotation.

We have written many articles about Solar Day for Universe Today. Here’s an article about how long a day is on Earth, and here’s an article about the rotation of the Earth.

If you’d like more info on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time
http://www.tpub.com/content/administration/14220/css/14220_149.htm
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/SolarDay.html
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/553052/solar-time?anchor=ref144523
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hour_angle

November 7, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Rare Earth Magnets

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Magnets are an endless source of fun, not to mention a convenience when it comes to fridge notes and white boards! But when it comes to industrial uses, such as those used by the air force and NASA, only one type of magnet makes the grade. These are called Rare Earth Magnets, a set of strong permanent magnets made from the alloys of particular earth elements. These elements fall into the category of rare earth elements (or metals), which are a collection of seventeen elements in the periodic table; namely scandium, yttrium, and the fifteen lanthanides. Despite their name, rare earth elements are actually quite abundant, but are so named because of their geochemical properties, they are rarely found in economically exploitable concentrations.

Rare earth elements are ferromagnetic, meaning that like iron, they can be magnetized. However, because most rare earth elements have low Curie temperatures (the temperature at which they exhibit magnetic properties), meaning they are only magnetic at low temperatures. However, most form compounds with transition metals like iron, nickel and cobalt, which have higher Curie temperatures, and can therefore be mixed with them to enhance their natural magnetic properties. There are two types: neodymium magnets and samarium-cobalt magnets. The former, invented in the 1980s, are the strongest and most affordable type of rare-earth magnet, is made of neodymium, iron and boron (chemical formula: Nd2Fe14B). On the other hand, Samarium-cobalt magnets (chemical formula: SmCo5), the first family of rare earth magnets invented, are less used than neodymium magnets because of their higher cost and weaker magnetic field strength. However, samarium-cobalt has a higher Curie temperature, creating a niche for these magnets in applications where high field strength is needed at higher operating temperatures.

Neodymium magnets are typically used in most computer hard drives and a variety of audio speakers. They are also have a number of important medical applications, not the least of which involves magnetic resonance imaging (or MRI) technology. They are also part of the driving mechanisms for electrical and hybrid motors, servomotors, cordless tools, and power steering controls. Samarium-cobalt motors are commonly used in the construction of electrical guitars, high-end Slotcar racing engines, and turbomachinery. In addition, rare earth elements are being used as a catalysts in the petroleum cracking industry and to make auto emissions equipment, and may have many future applications for green technology. Samarium-cobalt magnets may also be used in the making of cryogenic and high-temperature systems for future space travel.

Originally, the high cost of these magnets limited their use to applications requiring compactness together with high field strength, but beginning in the 1990s, rare earth magnets have become steadily less expensive, and the low cost has inspired new uses (such as magnetic toys for children).

We have written many articles about magnets for Universe Today. Here’s an article about where to buy magnets, and here’s an article about what magnets are made of.

If you’d like more info on Rare Earth Magnets, check out Rare Earth Magnetics Homepage, and here’s a link to Wikipedia: Rare Earth Magnets.

We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about Magnetism. Listen here, Episode 42: Magnetism Everywhere.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earth_element
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_temperature
http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/11/02/video-how-a-rare-earth-magnet-works/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare-earth_magnet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium_magnet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarium-cobalt

November 7, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Precession of the Equinoxes

Semi Major Axis — Solstice and Equinox - Credit: NASA

When he was first compiling his famous star catalogue in the year 129 BCE the Greek astronomer Hipparchus noticed that the positions of the stars did not match up with the Babylonian measurements that he was consulting. According to these Chaldean records, the stars had shifted in a rather systematic way, which indicated to Hipparchus that it was not the stars themselves that had moved but the frame of reference – i.e. the Earth itself.

Such a motion is called precession and consists of a cyclic wobbling in the orientation of Earth’s axis of rotation. Currently, this annual motion is about 50.3 seconds of arc per year or 1 degree every 71.6 years. The process is slow, but cumulative, and takes 25,772 years for a full precession to occur. This has historically been referred to as the Precession of the Equinoxes.

The name arises from the fact that during a precession, the equinoxes could be seen moving westward along the ecliptic relative to the stars that were believed to be “fixed” in place – that is, motionless from the perspective of astronomers – and opposite to the motion of the Sun along the ecliptic.

This precession is often referred to as a Platonic Year in astrological circles because of Plato’s recorded remark in the dialogue of Timaeus that a perfect year could be defined as the return of the celestial bodies (planets) and the fixed stars to their original positions in the night sky. However, it was Hipparchus who is first credited with observing this phenomenon, according to Greek astronomer Ptolemy whose own work was in part attributed to him.

The precession of the Earth’s axis has a number of noticeable effects. First of all , the positions of the south and north celestial poles appear to move in circles against the backdrop of stars, completing one cycle every 25, 772 years. Thus, while today the star Polaris lies approximately at the north celestial pole, this will change over time, and other stars will become the “north star”. Second, the position of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun during the solstices, equinoxes, or other seasonal times slowly changes.

The cause of this was first discussed by Sir Isaac Newton in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica where he described it as a consequence of gravitation. Though his equations were not exact, they have since been revised by scientists and his original theory proven correct.

It is now known that precessions are caused by the gravitational source of the Sun and Moon, in addition to the fact that the Earth is a spheroid and not a perfect sphere, meaning that when tilted, the Sun’s gravitational pull is stronger on the portion that is tilted towards it, thus creating a torque effect on the planet. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, there would be no precession.

Today, the term is still widely used, but generally in astrological circles and not within scientific contexts.

We have written many articles about the equinox for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the astronomical perspective of climate change, and here’s an article about the Vernal Equinox.

If you’d like more info on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about Gravity. Listen here, Episode 102: Gravity.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_precession_%28astronomy%29
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaldea
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_year
http://www.crystalinks.com/precession.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton

Reference:
NASA: Precession

November 7, 2010December 24, 2015 by Matt Williams

Pompeii Eruption

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Imagine if you will that it’s bright sunny day in summer. The festival of Vulcanalia, dedicated to the Roman God of Fire, has just passed. Now you’re out looking for some produce to stock up for the coming winter. You’ve just finished a tour of the marketplace and are on your way home when suddenly, the mountain that your town sits at the foot of inexplicably erupts! Fire and ash rain down upon your city, people are baked alive and the town is encased in soot and dirt several meters thick. But, silver lining here, your bodies are so well preserved that when you’re dug up two thousand years later, they’ll have a pretty good idea what life was like at the time of your death. Yes, that’s how the Pompeii Eruption took place. The year was 79 CE; the place, a prosperous town named Pompeii located in the Bay of Naples. It was one of the most significant natural disasters of the ancient world, a major archaeological find in the 18th century, and is now one of the biggest tourist draws in all of Italy.

Based on the letters of Pliny the Younger, historians now believe the eruption to have taken place between the 24th of August and November 23rd, in the year 79 CE. Witnessing the eruption from across the Bay of Naples, Pliny gave a fist-hand account of the destruction. Although it was generally assumed that the people of Pompeii died as a result of suffocation from volcanic ash, a recent multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicated that heat was the main cause of death. The results of this study show that temperatures would have reached 250 °C up to a distance of 10 kilometers, which would have been sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings. The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of soil which was 25 meters deep and were therefore not discovered for almost two thousand years.

However, rediscovery of the lost city started in 1738, beginning with Pompeii’s sister town of Herculaneum which had also been destroyed in the eruption. At the time, the discovery was the accidental result of workmen digging so that they could build the foundations of a new summer palace for the king of Naples. The discovery of ancient buildings, left largely intact, led to a subsequent intentional excavation of Pompeii itself in 1764 by Francisco la Vega. In addition to intact buildings, many of which contained perfectly preserved Roman frescos, human remains were also uncovered.

For over 20 years now, Pompeii has been one of the most popular tourist destinations in Italy, attracting almost 2.6 million visitors in 2008 alone. In 1997, it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and attempts are underway to ensure that it can be preserved for future generations. Though the life-blood of the local economy, the pressure exerted by millions of tourists annually is taking its toll on this once-perfectly preserved site.

We have written many articles about Pompeii Eruption for Universe Today. Here’s an article about Mt. Vesuvius, and here are interesting facts about volcanoes.

If you’d like more info on volcanoes, check out the U.S. Geological Survey Homepage. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded related episodes of Astronomy Cast about Volcanoes. Listen here, Episode 141: Volcanoes, Hot and Cold.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii#Vesuvius_eruption
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius
http://touritaly.org/pompeii/pompeii-main.htm
http://wikitravel.org/en/Pompeii

November 5, 2010July 21, 2020 by Matt Williams

What is the Multiverse Theory?

*Could our Universe be part of a wider Multiverse? And could these other Universes support life? Credit: Jaime Salcido/EAGLE Collaboration*

If you’re a fan of science fiction or fantasy then chances are, at some point, you’ve read a book, seen a movie, or watched a series that explored the concept of multiple universes. The idea being that within this thing we call time and space, there are other dimensions where reality differs from our own, sometimes slightly, sometimes radically. Interestingly enough, this idea is not restricted to fiction and fantasy.

In science, this is known as the Multiverse Theory, which states that there may be multiple or even an infinite number of universes (including the universe we consistently experience) that together comprise everything that exists: the entirety of space, time, matter, and energy as well as the physical laws and constants that describe them. In this context, multiple universes are often referred to as parallel universes because they exist alongside our own.

The term was coined in 1895 by the American philosopher and psychologist William James. However, the scientific basis of it arose from the study of cosmological forces like black holes and problems arising out of the Big Bang theory. For example, within black holes it is believed that a singularity exists – a point at which all physical laws cease – and where it becomes impossible to predict physical behavior.

Beyond this point, it is possible that there may be an entirely new set of physical laws, or just slightly different versions of the ones that we know, and that a different universe might exist. Theories like cosmic inflation support this idea, stating that countless universes emerged from the same primordial vacuum after the Big Bang, and that the universe as we know it is just what is observable to us.

Max Tegmark’s taxonomy of universes sums up the different theories on multiple universes. IN this model, there are four levels that classify all major schools on thought on the subject.

In Level One, different universes are arranged one on top of the other in what is called Hubble Volumes, all having the same physical laws and constants. Though each will likely differ from our own in terms of distribution of matter, there will eventually be Hubble volumes with similar, and even identical, configurations to our own.

In Level Two, universes with different physical constants exist and the multiverse as a whole is stretching and will continue to do so forever, but some regions of space stop stretching and form distinct bubbles, like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread.

In Level Three, known as the Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, observations cannot be predicted absolutely but a range of possible observations exist, each one corresponding to a different universe. Level Four, aka.the Ultimate Ensemble devised by Tegmark himself, considers as equally real all universes that can be defined by mathematical structures. In other words, universes with the same or different constants may exist.

We have written many articles about multiverse for Universe Today. Here’s an article about searching life in the multiverse, and here’s an article about parallel universe.

If you’d like more info on the Multiverse, check out some Recent Innovations about the Concept of Universe, and here’s a link to an article about the Size of the Universe.

We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about Multiverses. Listen here, Episode 166: Multiverses.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100112165249.htm
http://www.astronomy.pomona.edu/Projects/moderncosmo/Sean%27s%20mutliverse.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_%28cosmology%29