Nancy has been with Universe Today since 2004, and has published over 6,000 articles on space exploration, astronomy, science and technology. She is the author of two books: "Eight Years to the Moon: the History of the Apollo Missions," (2019) which shares the stories of 60 engineers and scientists who worked behind the scenes to make landing on the Moon possible; and "Incredible Stories from Space: A Behind-the-Scenes Look at the Missions Changing Our View of the Cosmos" (2016) tells the stories of those who work on NASA's robotic missions to explore the Solar System and beyond.
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It’s time once again for the Where In The Universe Challenge. Hard to believe we’ve done thirty of these already, and our readers are getting really good at this. The goal of the WITU challenge is to test your skills and visual knowledge of our universe. Guess where this image is from, and give yourself extra points if you can guess which spacecraft is responsible for the image. Mull over the image, make your guess and post a comment if you’re brave enough. Check back tomorrow at this same post to find the answer and see how you did. Good luck!
UPDATE (11/20): The answer has now been posted below. If you haven’t made your guess yet, no peeking before you do!!
Photograph courtesy NSSDC/GSFC/NASA
Again, nice job everyone! Yes, this is the surface of Venus, taken by the Venera 9 lander before it quickly succumbed to the heat and pressure of the planet. From June to October 1975, the Russian space probe Venera 9 became the first craft to orbit, land on, and photograph Venus. Venera 9 consisted of two main parts that separated in orbit, an orbiter and a lander. The 5,070-pound (2,300-kilogram) orbiter relayed communication and photographed the planet in ultraviolet light. The lander entered the Venusian atmosphere using a series of parachutes and employed a special panoramic photometer to produce 180-degree panoramic photos of the surface of the planet.
Great job! Come back again for next week’s WITU Challenge.
A tool bag floated away in space as spacewalking astronauts worked outside the International Space Station Tuesday. Heide Stefanyshyn-Piper had a grease gun explode inside her tool bag, getting the dark gray goop all over a camera, the inside of the bag, and her gloves. While she was trying to clean it up, the whole bag floated away. “Oh, great,” Piper said. It was one of the largest items ever to be lost by a spacewalker. Lost were two grease guns, needed to clean and lube the jammed Solar Alpha Rotary Joint for the space station’s solar arrays. Flight director Ginger Kerrick said the bag and also an errant screw that also floated past that spacewalkers posed no hazards to the ISS or shuttle. By late Tuesday, the bag was already well away from the complex, about 2.5 miles (4 km) in front of the shuttle-station complex. The rest of the spacewalk went well, as Piper and her partner Stephen Bowen shared tools and accomplished all the planned objectives. Mission planners are studying options for replacing, or doing without, two grease guns lost.
While one orb weaver spiders weaved away in an ususual unsymmetrical manner, one spider is MIA.
“We don’t believe that it’s escaped the overall payload enclosure,” said Kirk Shireman, NASA’s deputy station program manager. “I’m sure we’ll find him spinning a web sometime here in the next few days.”
“The web was more or less three-dimensional and it looked like it was all over the inside of the spider hab,” said NASA astronaut Sandra Magnus, the space station’s science officer. “We took some pictures of it.” And here’s an image:
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Painted lady butterfly larvae were also included as a separate part of the experiment.
Students will compare the space butterflies’ lifecycle and how the spiders weave webs and feed in weightlessness with similar spiders and butterflies on Earth.
Also inside the station, astronauts moved two 1,700-pound (770 kg) water recycling racks into the Destiny lab module, as well as combustion research gear, and a new toilet and crew sleep stations.
The water recycling gear, which will convert condensate and urine into pure water for drinking, food preparation, hygiene and oxygen generation, is crucial for NASA’s plans to boost the station’s crew size to six next year. The astronauts hoped to hook up the two water processing racks today (Wednesday) and to begin pumping stored urine into the system Thursday.
Water samples will be returned to Earth aboard Endeavour for detailed chemical analysis. A full three months of testing is planned in orbit, with additional ground tests after the next shuttle visit in February, before any astronauts are allowed to drink the recycled water.
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Communication with spacecraft is vital for NASA, and since the World Wide Web has enabled easy, reliable and quick contact for people around the world, the space agency decided to model a new deep space communication system on the internet. A month-long test of this “Interplanetary Internet” was successfully conducted by transmitting dozens of images to and from the EPOXI spacecraft, now about 20 million miles from Earth. The system uses software called Disruption-Tolerant Networking, or DTN created by a partnership between NASA and Google vice president Vint Cerf. “This is the first step in creating a totally new space communications capability, an interplanetary Internet,” said Adrian Hooke, team lead and manager of space-networking architecture, technology and standards at NASA Headquarters in Washington.
NASA’s current communication system, the Deep Space Network, has been around since the early days of space travel, and NASA is looking to upgrade and enhance their ability to communicate with spacecraft. The Interplanetary Internet must be robust to withstand delays, disruptions and disconnections in space. Glitches can happen when a spacecraft moves behind a planet, or when solar storms and long communication delays occur. The delay in sending or receiving data from Mars takes between three-and-a-half to 20 minutes at the speed of light. Therefore, the DTN sends information using a method that differs from the normal Internet’s Transmission-Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP, communication suite, which Cerf also co-designed.
Unlike TCP/IP on Earth, the DTN does not assume a continuous end-to-end connection. In its design, if a destination path cannot be found, the data packets are not discarded. Instead, each network node keeps the information as long as necessary until it can communicate safely with another node. This store-and-forward method, similar to basketball players safely passing the ball to the player nearest the basket means information does not get lost when no immediate path to the destination exists. Eventually, the information is delivered to the end user. This is all done automatically.
Engineers began a month-long series of DTN demonstrations in October. Data were transmitted using NASA’s Deep Space Network in demonstrations occurring twice a week. Engineers use NASA’s EPOXI spacecraft as a Mars data-relay orbiter. EPOXI spacecraft is the bus from the Deep Impact mission that send an impactor to Comet Temple 1 in July of 2005, and it is now on a mission to encounter Comet Hartley 2 in two years. There are 10 nodes on this early interplanetary network. One is the EPOXI spacecraft itself and the other nine, which are on the ground at JPL, simulate Mars landers, orbiters and ground mission-operations centers.
This month-long experiment is the first in a series of planned demonstrations to qualify the technology for use on a variety of upcoming space missions. As Ian reported last month, the next round of testing will be done on the International Space Station next summer.
In the next few years, the Interplanetary Internet could enable many new types of space missions. Complex missions involving multiple landed, mobile and orbiting spacecraft will be far easier to support through the use of the Interplanetary Internet. It also could ensure reliable communications for astronauts on the surface of the moon.
Pan-STARRS 1 prototype, part of the Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System, Haleakala mountain, Maui. Photo / MIT Lincoln Laboratory
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A prototype telescope with an enhanced ability to find moving objects will soon be operational, and its mission will be to detect asteroids and comets that could someday pose a threat to Earth. The system is called Pan-STARRS (for Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System) located on Haleakala mountain in Maui,Hawaii, and is the first of four telescopes that will be housed together in one dome. Pan-STARRS will feature the world’s largest and most advanced digital camera, providing more than a fivefold improvement in the ability to detect Near Earth Asteroids and comets. “This is a truly giant instrument,” said University of Hawaii astronomer John Tonry, who led the team developing the new 1.4-gigapixel camera. “We get an image that is 38,000 by 38,000 pixels in size, or about 200 times larger than you get in a high-end consumer digital camera.” The Pan-STARRS camera will cover an area of sky six times the width of the full moon and it can detect stars 10 million times fainter than those visible to the naked eye.
The Lincoln Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed charge-coupled device (CCD) technology is a key enabling technology for the telescope’s camera. In the mid-1990s, Lincoln Laboratory researchers developed the orthogonal-transfer charge-coupled device (OTCCD), a CCD that can shift its pixels to cancel the effects of random image motion. Many consumer digital cameras use a moving lens or chip mount to provide camera-motion compensation and thus reduce blur, but the OTCCD does this electronically at the pixel level and at much higher speeds.
The challenge presented by the Pan-STARRS camera is its exceptionally wide field of view. For wide fields of view, jitter in the stars begins to vary across the image, and an OTCCD with its single shift pattern for all the pixels begins to lose its effectiveness. The solution for Pan-STARRS, proposed by Tonry and developed in collaboration with Lincoln Laboratory, was to make an array of 60 small, separate OTCCDs on a single silicon chip. This architecture enabled independent shifts optimized for tracking the varied image motion across a wide scene.
“Not only was Lincoln the only place where the OTCCD had been demonstrated, but the added features that Pan-STARRS needed made the design much more complicated,” said Burke, who has been working on the Pan-STARRS project. “It is fair to say that Lincoln was, and is, uniquely equipped in chip design, wafer processing, packaging, and testing to deliver such technology.”
The primary mission of Pan-STARRS is to detect Earth-approaching asteroids and comets that could be dangerous to the planet. When the system becomes fully operational, the entire sky visible from Hawaii (about three-quarters of the total sky) will be photographed at least once a week, and all images will be entered into powerful computers at the Maui High Performance Computer Center. Scientists at the center will analyze the images for changes that could reveal a previously unknown asteroid. They will also combine data from several images to calculate the orbits of asteroids, looking for indications that an asteroid may be on a collision course with Earth.
Pan-STARRS will also be used to catalog 99 percent of stars in the northern hemisphere that have ever been observed by visible light, including stars from nearby galaxies. In addition, the Pan-STARRS survey of the whole sky will present astronomers with the opportunity to discover, and monitor, planets around other stars, as well as rare explosive objects in other galaxies.
Chandra X-ray image of M84 (NASA/CXC/MPE/A.Finoguenov et al.); Radio (NSF/NRAO/VLA/ESO/R.A.Laing et al); Optical (SDSS)
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Obviously, today is the day for news on black holes. While one group of astronomers studied the violent flares of energy sent out by black holes in the near infrared and submillimeter wavelengths, another group used the Chandra X-Ray Observatory to see how black holes can pump energy in a gentler and rhythmic fashion, rather than violently. These scientists say the powerful black holes at the center of massive galaxies act as hearts to the systems, pumping energy out at regular intervals to regulate the growth of the black holes themselves, as well as star formation. “Just like our hearts periodically pump our circulatory systems to keep us alive, black holes give galaxies a vital warm component. They are a careful creation of nature, allowing a galaxy to maintain a fragile equilibrium,” said Alexis Finoguenov, of the Max-Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany.
The scientists observed and simulated how the black hole at the center of elliptical galaxy M84 dependably sends bubbles of hot plasma into space, heating up interstellar space.
This heat is believed to slow both the formation of new stars and the growth of the black hole itself, helping the galaxy remain stable. Interstellar gases only coalesce into new stars when the gas is cool enough. The heating is more efficient at the sites where it is most needed, the scientists say.
This finding helps to explain a decades-long paradox of the existence of large amounts of warm gas around certain galaxies, making them appear bright to the Chandra X-ray telescope.
“For decades astronomers were puzzled by the presence of the warm gas around these objects. The gas was expected to cool down and form a lot of stars” said Mateusz Ruszkowski, an assistant professor in the University of Michigan Department of Astronomy.
“Now, we see clear and direct evidence that the heating mechanism of black holes is persistent, producing enough heat to significantly suppress star formation. These plasma bubbles are caused by bursts of energy that happen one after another rather than occasionally, and the direct evidence for such periodic behavior is difficult to find.”
The bubbles form one inside another, for a sort of Russian doll effect that has not been seen before, Ruszkowski said. One of the bubbles of hot plasma appears to be bursting and its contents spilling out, further contributing to the heating of the interstellar gas.
“Disturbed gas in old galaxies is seen in many images that NASA’s Chandra observatory obtained, but seeing multiple events is a really impressive evidence for persistent black hole activity,” says Christine Jones, an astrophysicist at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
A paper on the research called “In-depth Chandra study of the AGN feedback in Virgo Elliptical Galaxy M84” has been published in Astrophysical Journal.
Left: Submillimetre and infrared view of the Galactic Centre Right: Flares from the disk of material surrounding the black hole Sagittarius A*. Credit: ESO/APEX/2MASS/A. Eckart et al. , ESO/L. Calçada
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Two different telescopes simultaneously observed violent flares from the supermassive black hole in the center of the Milky Way. The outbursts from this region, known as Sagittarius A*, reveal material being stretched like bread dough out as it orbits in the intense gravity close to the central black hole. Using ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) and the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) telescope, both in Chile, to study light from Sagittarius A* at near-infrared wavelengths and the longer submillimeter wavelengths, astronomers have for the first time concurrently caught a flare with these telescopes. “Observations like this, over a range of wavelengths, are really the only way to understand what’s going on close to the black hole,” says Andreas Eckart of the University of Cologne, who led the team.
Sagittarius A* is located at the centre of our own Milky Way Galaxy at a distance from Earth of about 26,000 light-years. It is a supermassive black hole with a mass of about four million times that of the Sun. Most, if not all, galaxies are thought to have a supermassive black hole in their center.
“Sagittarius A* is unique, because it is the nearest of these monster black holes, lying within our own galaxy,” explains team member Frederick K. Baganoff of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, USA. “Only for this one object can our current telescopes detect these relatively faint flares from material orbiting just outside the event horizon.”
The emission from Sagittarius A* is thought to come from gas thrown off by stars, which then orbits and falls into the black hole.
The VLT pointed their telescope at Sagittarius A* and saw it was active, and getting brighter by the minute. They contacted their colleagues at the APEX telescope, who were able to also catch the flares. Both telescopes are in the southern hemisphere, which provides the best vantage point for studying the Galactic Center.
Over the next six hours, the team detected violently variable infrared emission, with four major flares from Sagittarius A*. The submillimeter-wavelength results also showed flares, but, crucially, this occurred about one and a half hours after the infrared flares.
The researchers explain that this time delay is probably caused by the rapid expansion, at speeds of about 5 million km/h, of the clouds of gas that are emitting the flares. This expansion causes changes in the character of the emission over time, and hence the time delay between the infrared and submillimetre flares.
Although speeds of 5 million km/h may seem fast, this is only 0.5% of the speed of light. To escape from the very strong gravity so close to the black hole, the gas would have to be travelling at half the speed of light – 100 times faster than detected – and so the researchers believe that the gas cannot be streaming out in a jet. Instead, they suspect that a blob of gas orbiting close to the black hole is being stretched out, like dough in a mixing bowl, and this is causing the expansion.
The team hopes that future observations will help them discover more about this mysterious region at the center of our Galaxy.
This 3D map superimposes gamma-ray data from Mars Odyssey's Gamma-Ray Spectrometer onto topographic data from the laser altimeter onboard the Mars Global Surveyor.
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Data from the Mars Odyssey orbiter’s Gamma Ray Spectrometer provides new evidence for the controversial idea that oceans once covered about a third of ancient Mars. Spacecraft images going back to Mariner 9 in the early 1970s and the Viking orbiters and landers later in the 1970s up to the current orbiters and rovers have showed widespread evidence for a watery past for Mars. About 20 years ago, several studies sparked a scientific debate on the possible existence of ancient Martian oceans marked by visible shorelines. Images and topographic maps provide evidence for two different oceans in one area, perhaps occuring at different times in Mars history, a larger one at an earlier time, and a smaller once existing later. Odyssey’s GRS can detect subsurface elements, and new data confirms the right combination of elements for two ancient shorelines.
The spectrometer has the unique ability to detect elements buried as much as 1/3 meter, or 13 inches, below the surface by the gamma rays they emit. That capability led to GRS’ 2002 discovery of water-ice near the surface near Mars arctic region, leading to the decision for the Phoenix landing site.
“Our investigation posed the question, ‘Might we see a greater concentration of these elements within the ancient shorelines because water and rock containing the elements moved from the highlands to the lowlands, where they eventually ponded as large water bodies?'” said University of Arizona planetary geologist James M. Dohm, who led the international investigation. “We compared Gamma Ray Spectrometer data on potassium, thorium and iron above and below a shoreline believed to mark an ancient ocean that covered a third of Mars’ surface, and an inner shoreline believed to mark a younger, smaller ocean.”
Results suggest that past watery conditions likely leached, transported and concentrated such elements as potassium, thorium and iron, Dohm said. “The regions below and above the two shoreline boundaries are like cookie cutouts that can be compared to the regions above the boundaries, as well as the total region.”
The younger, inner shoreline is evidence that an ocean about 10 times the size of the Mediterranean Sea, or about the size of North America, existed on the northern plains of Mars a few billion years ago. The larger, more ancient shoreline that covered a third of Mars held an ocean about 20 times the size of the Mediterranean, the researchers estimate.
The potassium-thorium-iron enriched areas occur below the older and younger paleo-ocean boundaries with respect to the entire region, they said. The scientists used data from Mars Global Surveyor’s laser altimeter for topographic maps of the regions in their study.
Scientists studying spacecraft images have a hard time confirming “shoreline” landforms, the researchers said, because Mars shorelines would look different from Earth’s shorelines. Earth’s coastal shorelines are largely a direct result of powerful tides caused by gravitational interaction between Earth and the moon, but Mars lacks a sizable moon. Another difference is that lakes or seas on Mars could have formed largely from giant debris flows and liquefied sediments. Still another difference is that Mars oceans may have been ice-covered, which would prevent wave action.
“The GRS adds key information to the long-standing oceans-on-Mars controversy,” Dohm said. “But the debate is likely to continue well into the future, perhaps even when scientists can finally walk the Martian surface with instruments in hand, with a network of smarter spaceborne, airborne and ground-based robotic systems in their midst.”
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With a waning gibbous moon hanging over the launch pad, Space Shuttle Endeavour lit up the night sky with a spectacular and gorgeous liftoff, right on time at 7:55 EST. Endeavour is carrying a load of equipment for a “home improvement project” for the International Space Station. Included on board are a urine recycling system, a new toilet, a new galley and additional crew accommodations to enable an expanded ISS crew. Next year the station will be home to six astronauts instead of the current three, allowing scientific research to move to the forefront of ISS operations. Just before launch Commander Chris Ferguson radioed to Mission Control, “It’s our turn to take home improvement to a new level after 10 years of international space station construction,” Ferguson replied. “Endeavour’s ready to go.”
The launch was so spectacular that I’ll post more pictures of the launch as they become available. See below for a great ET separation image. And check out Spacewriter’s Ramblings for some screenshots she took of the events. And yes, we Twittered to each other!
Just a few minutes before scheduled launch, it looked like there might be a problem that could cause a launch scrub…
External tank is jettisoned. Credit: NASA
The White Room crew forgot to latch the inner door on the Orbiter Access arm, but the mission managers concluded that it should not cause any problems, and that the mission would be safe to fly. The loose door was visible on NASA TV views as the Orbiter Access Arm was retracted. It just looked a little odd, but caused no problems for Endeavour.
More images:
Here’s one from Bill Ingalls of Space.gs.
From NASA: Endeavour's launch Nov. 14. Credit: NASA
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A new camera that will assist farmers, ranchers, foresters and educators is heading to the International Space Station. Students and faculty from the University of North Dakota built the Agricultural Camera, known as AgCam, which will be delivered by Space Shuttle Endeavour on the STS-126 mission to the ISS. The astronauts will install the system on the station but once its set up, students will control the camera remotely, sending commands from the Operations Center at UND.
AgCam will take images in visible and infrared light of growing crops, rangeland, grasslands, forests and wetlands in the northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions. “The beauty of the AgCam is the combination of features it has to provide important data to a wide variety of people,” George Seielstad, the director of AgCam at told Universe Today. “Plus, students have the opportunity to do real engineering and provide valuable data to protect our environment.”
The information from AgCam will provide useful data about crops and other vegetation. “We’re getting two spectral bands, near infrared and red (in the visible),” said Seielstad, from Florida, where he and several of his team are to attend the launch at Kennedy Space Center, “but the difference between those two are the most critical for determining the health of the vegetation of any kind, be it crops, prairie, grassland, pasture, or a forest. So those two bands are critical.” The AgCam will also provide better resolution than Landsat, at 15-20 meter resolution.
AgCam web logo, showing the type of spectral images that will be available. Credit: UMAC
But the big advantage is the frequency of over passes. “The space station comes over sometimes more than once a day in a particular area,” said Seielstad. “But routinely, it comes over at least two or three times a week. Even if it’s cloudy one of those times you’re getting an image a week, and that hasn’t been available before.”
Seielstad said regular images will help people in the agricultural industries to monitor their crops and the environment. “The best thing is the change of getting an image regularly instead of only every once in awhile. It will be like getting a motion picture of your crop rather than the snapshot two or three times a season.”
The camera will only be operational during the growing season in the northern plains of the US, from about April to October. And even though there are times that the ISS goes over the region only at night, Seielstad said there are more times the camera will be gathering data than not during the growing season. “There will be some gaps in the data collection, but it’s a vast improvement from what is currently available,” he said.
Another advantage is the quick delivery of data. “The data comes back to us from the ISS, through the Marshall Space Flight Center to the UND operations center,” said Seielstad. “It can quickly be turned into usable data and sent out . You might be looking at data that’s only 24-48 hours old, which is very fast turnaround.”
All the data will be available to anyone on the AgCam website. “There are several Indian reservations in the area we serve and they manage their own resources, so it will be valuable for them as well,” said Seielstad. “Educators can also make use of it too as a tool to bring into the classroom.
“For every parameter, there are other satellites that can provide similar data, but it yet doesn’t exist in the full combination of what the AgCam will provide,” said Seielstad. AgCam imagery also may assist in disaster management, such as flood monitoring and wild fire mapping.
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Just a reminder of this evening’s launch of Space Shuttle Endeavour. And this time, NASA is trying something new. During the countdown you can listen in to live audio of communications between launch controllers and the shuttle, something that is not normally done. NASA Television will provide a continuous “clean video feed” on its Media Channel of space shuttle Endeavour in the hours before its 7:55 p.m. EST liftoff today, Nov. 14. This means there won’t be the regular commentary, just the communications audio, beginning at 2:30 pm EST on the Media Channel. If you have satellite television, check your channel listings. To watch online, go here, and choose the Media Channel. And if you’d rather listen to the regular commentary, just go to the regular Public NASA TV channel. Or watch SpaceVidCast on UStream, if you prefer where you can text chat with other viewers…
The “clean feed” will include live audio of communications between launch controllers and the shuttle but not the commentary airing on NASA TV’s Public Channel. NASA TV commentary will air on both channels beginning approximately nine minutes before the scheduled launch time at the conclusion of what is known as the T minus 9 minute hold in the launch countdown.
During the shuttle’s 15-day STS-126 mission to the International Space Station, the crew will deliver supplies and equipment necessary to double the station crew size from three to six members and conduct four spacewalks.
