Guide to Space Archives

October 14, 2010January 7, 2017 by Matt Williams

How Does Carbon Capture Work?

High concentrations of carbon dioxide (in red) tend to congregate in the northern hemisphere during colder months, when plants can't absorb as much from the atmosphere. This picture is based on a NASA Goddard computer model from ground-based observations and depicts concentrations on March 30, 2006. Credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center/B. Putman/YouTube (screenshot)

What if it were possible to just suck all the harmful pollutants out of the air so that they wouldn’t be such a nuisance? What if it were also possible to convert these atmospheric pollutants back into fossil fuels, or possibly ecologically-friendly bio fuels? Why, then we would be able to worry far less about smog, respiratory illnesses, and the effects that high concentrations of these gases have on the planet.

This is the basis of Carbon Capture, a relatively new concept where carbon dioxide is captured at point sources – such as factories, natural-gas plants, fuel plants, major cities, or any other place where large concentrations of CO² are known to be found. This CO² can then be stored for future use, converted into biofuels, or simply put back into the Earth so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere.

Description:

Like many other recent developments, carbon capture is part of a new set of procedures that are collectively known as geoengineering. The purpose of these procedures are to alter the climate to counteract the effects of global warming, generally by targeting one of the chief greenhouse gases. The technology has existed for some time, but it has only been in recent years that it has been proposed as a means of combating climate change as well.

*Schematic showing both terrestrial and geological sequestration of carbon dioxide emissions from a coal-fired plant. Credit: web.ornl.gov*

Currently, carbon capture is most often employed in plants that rely on fossil fuel burning to generate electricity. This process is performed in one of three basic ways – post-combustion, pre-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion. Post-combustion involves removing CO2 after the fossil fuel is burned and is converted into a flue gas, which consists of CO2, water vapor, sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxide.

When the gases travel through a smokestack or chimney, CO² is captured by a “filter” which actually consists of solvents that are used to absorb CO2 and water vapor. This technique is effective in that such filters can be retrofitted to older plants, avoiding the need for a costly power plant overhaul.

Benefits and Challenges:

The results of these processes have so far been encouraging – which boast the possibility of up to 90 % of CO² being removed from emissions (depending on the type of plant and the method used). However, there are concerns that some of these processes add to the overall cost and energy consumption of power plants.

According to 2005 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the additional costs range from 24 to 40% for coal power plants, 11 to 22% for natural gas plants, and 14 to 25% for coal-based gasification combined cycle systems. The additional power consumption also creates more in the way of emissions.

*Vehicle emissions are one of the main sources of carbon dioxide today. Credit: ucsusa.org*

In addition, while CC operations are capable of drastically reducing CO², they can add other pollutants to the air. The amounts of kind of pollutants depend on the technology, and range from ammonia and nitrogen oxides (NO and NO²) to sulfur oxides and disulfur oxides (SO, SO², SO³, S²O, S²O³. etc.). However, researchers are developing new techniques which they hope will reduce both costs and consumption and not generate additional pollutants.

Examples:

A good example of the Carbon Capture process is the Petro Nova project, a coal-fired power plant in Texas. This plant began being upgraded by the US Dept. of Energy (DOE) in 2014 to accommodate the largest post-combustion carbon-capture operation in the world.

Consisting of filters that would capture the emissions, and infrastructure that would place it back in the Earth, the DOE estimates that this operation will be capable of capturing 1.4 million tons of CO₂ that previously would have been released into the air.

In the case of pre-combustion, CO² is trapped before the fossil fuel is even burned. Here, coal, oil or natural gas is heated in pure oxygen, resulting in a mix of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This mix is then treated in a catalytic converter with steam, which then produces more hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

The US Department of Energy's (DoE) Petro Nova project, which will be the argest post-combustion carbon capture operation in the world. Credit: DOE — *When complete, the US Department of Energy’s (DoE) Petro Nova will be the largest post-combustion carbon capture operation in the world. Credit: DOE*

These gases are then fed into flasks where they are treated with amine (which binds with the CO² but not hydrogen); the mixture is then heated, causing the CO² to rise where it can be collected. In the final process (oxy-fuel combustion), fossil fuel is burned in oxygen, resulting in a gas mixture of steam and CO². The steam and carbon dioxide are separated by cooling and compressing the gas stream, and once separated, the CO² is removed.

Other efforts at carbon capture include building urban structures with special facilities to extract CO² from the air. Examples of this include the Torre de Especialidades in Mexico City – a hospital that is surrounded by a 2500 m² facade composed of Prosolve370e. Designed by Berlin-based firm Elegant Embellishments, this specially-shaped facade is able to channel air through its lattices and relies on chemical processes to filter out smog.

China’s Phoenix Towers – a planned-project for a series of towers in Wuhan, China (which will also be the world’s tallest) – is also expected to be equipped with a carbon capture operation. As part of the designers vision of creating a building that is both impressively tall and sustainable, these include special coatings on the outside of the structures that will draw CO² out of the local city air.

Then there’s the idea for “artificial trees“, which was put forward by Professor Klaus Lackner of the Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering at Columbia University. Consisting of plastic fronds that are coated with a resin that contains sodium carbonation – which when combined with carbon dioxide creates sodium bicarbonate (aka. baking soda) – these “trees” consume CO² in much the same way real trees do.

A cost-effective version of the same technology used to scrub CO² from air in submarines and space shuttles, the fronds are then cleaned using water which, when combined with the sodium bicarbonate, yields a solution that can easily be converted into biofuel.

In all cases, the process of Carbon Capture comes down to finding ways to remove harmful pollutants from the air to reduce humanity’s footprint. Storage and reuse also enter into the equation in the hopes of giving researchers more time to develop alternative energy sources.

We have written many interesting articles about carbon capture here at Universe Today. Here’s What is Carbon Dioxide?, What Causes Air Pollution?, What if we Burn Everything?, Global Warming Watch: How Carbon Dioxide Bleeds Across The Earth, and World Needs to Aim for Near-Zero Carbon Emissions.

For more information on how Carbon Capture works, be sure to check out this video from the Carbon Capture and Storage Organization:

If you’d like more info on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also have Astronomy Cast episodes all about planet Earth and Climate Change. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth, Episode 308: Climate Change.

Sources:

October 14, 2010December 24, 2015 by Tega Jessa

Where is Helium Found

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Helium is the second lightest element in the known universe. It is also the second most abundant. According to some estimates helium accounts for as much as 24 percent of the Universe’s mass. This element is also plentiful since it is a prime product of fusion nuclear reactions involving hydrogen. So if it is so plentiful where is Helium found?

The problem is that just because an element is common in the universe at large does not mean that it is common on Earth. Helium is an element that fits this scenario. Helium only accounts for 0.00052% of the Earth’s atmosphere and the majority of the helium harvested comes from beneath the ground being extracted from minerals or tapped gas deposits. This makes it one of the rarest elements of any form on the planet.

Like mentioned before Helium is rare on Earth but there are places where it is readily found. If you look at space the majority of helium is in stars and the interstellar medium. This is due to the fusion reaction that powers most stars fusing single hydrogen atoms to create helium atoms. This process balanced with a star’s gravity is what helps it to stay stable for billions of years. On Earth the majority of helium found comes from radioactive decay. This is the opposite nuclear reaction called fission that splits atoms. For this reason radioactive minerals in the lithosphere like uranium are prime sources for helium.

On Earth there are key locations where concentrated helium can be harvested. The United States produces the majority of the world’s helium supply at 78%. The rest of the world’s helium is harvested in North Africa, The Middle East, and Russia. The interesting thing is that thanks to these deposits the world’s demand for helium is being met regularly. Also unlike petroleum which can decades to form from organic material, 3000 metric tons of Hydrogen is produced yearly. Until helium demand reaches at least the same level of demand as petroleum there it little chance of that demand outpacing supply.

Helium is looking to be a major player in the near future. Governments are looking into using the gas as source of hydrogen for fuel cells and other transportation technologies. At the moment the promise is still tentative but at least with better surveying and knowledge of gas deposits there will be a supply waiting if becomes the next major element to power human civilization. In the meanwhile ours is still a planet beholden to carbon.

We have written many articles about Helium for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the discovery of Helium, and here’s an article about composition of the Sun.

If you’d like more info about helium on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

Source: Wikipedia

October 14, 2010December 24, 2015 by Tega Jessa

Where Does Geothermal Energy Come From

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You may not have heard much about geothermal energy but it is one of the hottest alternative energy commodities around. It is a renewable and clean energy source that will be around for a long time. However where does geothermal energy come from? The answer is the earth itself. The world geothermal comes from the Greek words geo which means earth and therme which means heat. Basically geothermal energy is heat energy harvested from the Earth itself.

Geothermal heat is produced by the core of the Earth itself. You may not think that energy to be much when compared to the sun but you would be wrong in some aspects. The Earth’s core alone is 11,000 degrees. That is hotter than the surface of the sun. The Earth’s geothermal energy is created by the decay of radioactie materials in the core and in the surrounding layers of rock.

However this still doesnt tell us how this energy becomes accessible. The deepest mankind can even go with the best technology is around 11 km. The answer is plate tectonics. bounadaries and faults are cracks in the Earth’s crust where magma rises near or to the surface. Geothermal plants take advantage of this fact using water heated by this volcanic activity to produce electric power.

The main place where geothermal energy can be used have not only volcanic activity but also enough ground water to be used to power the turbines that generate power. Prime areas are near volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers. Large volcanic islands like Greenland have vast resources in terms of geothermal energy. In the end the most common location for geothermal reservoirs will be where ever there are major plate boundaries with a lot of seismic and volcanic activity.

The benefits of geothermal energy is already being discussed in nations like Iceland as way to reduce reliance on foreign oil. Geothermal is abundant where it can be accessed and can easily produce energy on par with the output of other types of energy production such as nuclear reactors. The best part is that it is clean energy. There is no way it can produce pollution that can harm the environment. The only risk is that drilling in active volcanic area can make them vulnerable to earthquakes.

In the end Geothermal still one of the best possible sources of clean energy on the planet. As the technology improves for accessing it more homes around the world will have the opportunity to be powered by this renewable energy resource.

We have written many articles about geothermal energy for Universe Today. Here’s an article about Geothermal Energy, and here’s an article about how geothermal energy works.

If you’d like more info on Earth, check out NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide on Earth. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

Sources:
http://www.eia.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=geothermal_home-basics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energy
http://www.clean-energy-ideas.com/articles/what_is_geothermal_energy.html

October 14, 2010December 24, 2015 by Jerry Coffey

Where do Hurricanes Occur?

View of Hurricane Ike From Space Station

What is a hurricane? Well, a hurricane is a tropical cyclone that occurs in the North Atlantic Ocean or the Northeast Pacific Ocean and remains east of the International Dateline. Tropical cyclones are characterized by a large low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms. These produce strong winds and heavy rain. These cyclones feed on heat released when moist air rises causing condensation of the water vapor that is contained in the moist air. These storms are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms(nor’easters, polar lows, and European windstorms). They are classified as a warm core storm system.

All tropical cyclones are areas of low atmospheric pressure. As a matter of fact, the pressures recorded at the center of tropical cyclones are among the lowest that occur at sea level. A hurricane is characterized and driven by the release of large amounts of latent heat of condensation(water vapor condenses as it moves upward). This heat is distributed vertically around the center of the storm, so, except at the surface of water, it is warmer inside the cyclone than it is outside. At the center of the hurricane is an area of sinking air. If this area is strong enough, it can develop into a large eye. Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds, but the surface of the sea may be tossing violently. The eye is normally circular in shape, and may range in size from 3 km to 370 km in diameter.

While a tropical cyclone’s primary energy source is the release of the heat of condensation, solar heating is the initial source of that evaporation. An initial warm core system(an organized thunderstorm complex) is necessary for the formation of a tropical cyclone, but a large flux of energy is needed to lower atmospheric pressure. The influx of warmth and moisture from the underlying ocean surface is critical for tropical cyclone strengthening and most of it comes from the lower 1 km of the atmosphere. Condensation leads to higher wind speeds. These faster winds and the lower pressure associated with them cause an increase in surface evaporation and more condensation. This positive feedback system continues and feeds the hurricane until the conditions for hurricane formation are gone. The rotation of Earth causes the system to spin,(the Coriolis effect) which gives it a cyclonic appearance and affects its trajectory.
Tropical cyclones are distinguished by the deep convection that fuels them. Since convection is strongest in the tropics it defines the initial domain of the tropical cyclone. To continue to feed itself a tropical cyclone must remain over warm water. When a tropical cyclone passes over land, it is cut off from its heat source and its strength diminishes rapidly. The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean can cause the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, which can influence subsequent cyclone development. Scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in the US estimate that a tropical cyclone releases heat energy equal to 70 times the world energy consumption, 200 times the worldwide electrical generating capacity, or the same as exploding a 10 megaton nuclear bomb every 20 minutes.
Well, there you have the answer to what is a hurricane. It is a tropical nightmare, but if humans could somehow harness that energy we would never need fossil fuels again.

We have written many articles about hurricanes for Universe Today. Here’s an article about human influences generating more hurricanes, and here’s a NASA video of Hurricane Bill.

If you’d like more info on hurricanes, check out Visible Earth Homepage. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

October 14, 2010September 18, 2016 by Jerry Coffey

How Do Tornadoes Form?

How do tornadoes form? That is pretty easy to answer since there has been a large amount of study into the subject. They are usually the extreme result of a supercell thunderstorm. During the storm cold air and warm air combine in a set pattern: the cold air drops as the warm air rises. The warm air eventually twists into a spiral and forms the funnel cloud that we all associate with a tornado.

The formation of a tornado follows a clear set of steps. First there a change in wind direction and an increase in wind speed. This change occurs at an increasing altitude and creates an invisible horizontal spinning effect in the lower atmosphere. Next, rising air within the thunderstorm’s updraft tilts the rotating air from horizontal to vertical. Third, an area of rotation, 3-10 km wide is contained within a vast majority of the storm. This is where the strongest tornadoes form. Then a lower cloud base in the center of the storm becomes a rotating wall cloud. This area can be nearly rain-free. Lastly, a tornado develops and starts to wreak its destruction.

Once a tornado has formed, it follows a predictable life cycle. First, the mesocyclone(rotating air), along with the rear flank downdraft( RFD), starts moving towards the ground. A small funnel appears to build up at the bottom of a wall cloud. As the RFD reaches the ground, the surrounding dirt rises up, causing damage even to heavy objects. The funnel touches the ground immediately after the RFD, forming a tornado.

During the next stage the tornado’s main source of energy, the RFD, begins to cool. The distance the tornado covers, depends on the rate at which the RFD cools. If the RFD cannot further provide any more warm air to the tornado, it begins to die.

Lastly, with the tornado’s warm air supply cut, the vortex begins to weaken and shrivel away. As the tornado weakens, the mesocyclone also starts to dissipate, but a new mesocyclone can start very close to the dying one. Those are the basics of tornado formation and life.

We have written many articles about tornado for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the biggest tornado, and here’s an article about the Tornado Alley.

If you’d like more info on tornado, check out the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Homepage. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

October 14, 2010December 24, 2015 by Jerry Coffey

How Big Is Neptune

Are There Oceans on Neptune — Neptune is more than just the 8th planet in our solar system; it is a celestial reminder of the power that mathematics grants us.

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There are many ways to determine ‘how big is Neptune’. It has an equatorial radius 24,764 km, a polar radius of 24,341 km, and a surface area of 7.6408×10,sup>9km². It has a volume of 6.254×10¹³km³, a mass of 1.0243×10²⁶kg, and a mean density of 1.638 g/cm³. Now that you know most of the planet’s critical digits, here is a little information about its make up.

Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun. It is the fourth-largest planet by diameter and the third-largest by mass. Neptune’s mass is 17 times that of the Earth. On average, Neptune orbits the Sun at a distance of 30.1 astronomical units. It was discovered on September 23, 1846. Neptune was the first planet found by mathematical prediction rather than direct observation. Alexis Bouvard deduced its existence from gravitational perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. The planet was later observed by Johann Galle. Its largest moon, Triton, was observed a short time later.

Neptune’s atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium along with traces of hydrocarbons and nitrogen. It also contains a high proportion of ices like: water, ammonia, and methane. Astronomers occasionally categorize Neptune as an ice giant. The interior of Neptune, like that of Uranus, is primarily composed of ices and rock. Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet’s blue appearance. Neptune’s atmosphere is notable for its active and visible weather patterns. When Voyager 2 flew by the planet’s southern hemisphere possessed a Great Dark Spot. These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, with recorded wind speeds as high as 2,100 km/h.Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune’s outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching ?218°C. Temperatures at the planet’s center are approximately 5,000°C.

Neptune has a planetary ring system. The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon-based material, which gives them a reddish hue. The three main rings are the narrow Adams Ring, 63,000 km from the center of Neptune, the Le Verrier Ring, at 53,000 km, and the broader, fainter Galle Ring, at 42,000 km. A faint outward extension to the Le Verrier Ring has been named Lassell; it is bounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57,000 km. Not only is the planet large, but it has many interesting features as well.

We have written many articles about Neptune for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the color of Neptune, and here are some pictures of Neptune.

If you’d like more information on Neptune, take a look at Hubblesite’s News Releases about Neptune, and here’s a link to NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide to Neptune.

We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about Neptune. Listen here, Episode 63: Neptune.

Source: NASA

October 4, 2010January 7, 2017 by Matt Williams

What is a Flying Wing?

X-47B conducting a midair refueling run in the Atlantic Test Ranges. Credit: US Navy

The field of aviation has produced some interesting designs over the course of its century-long history. In addition to monoplanes, jet-aircraft, rocket-propelled planes, and high-altitude interceptors and spy craft, there is also the variety of airplanes that do away with such things as tails, sections and fuselages. These are what is known as Flying Wings, a type of fixed-wing aircraft that consists of a single wing.

While this concept has been investigated for almost as long as flying machines have existed, it is only within the past few decades that its true potential has been realized. And when it comes to the future of aerospace, it is one concept that is expected to see a great deal more in the way of research and development.

Description:

By definition, a flying wing is an aircraft which has no definite fuselage, with most of the crew, payload and equipment being housed inside the main wing structure. From the top, a flying wing looks like a chevron, with the wings constituting its outer edges and the front middle serving as the cockpit or pilot’s seat. They come in many varieties, ranging from the jet fighter/bomber to hand gliders and sailplanes.

A clean flying wing is theoretically the most aerodynamically efficient (lowest drag) design configuration for a fixed wing aircraft. It also offers high structural efficiency for a given wing depth, leading to light weight and high fuel efficiency.

*A Junkers G 38, in service with Lufthansa. Credit: SDASM Archives*

History of Development:

Tailless craft have been around since the time of the Wright Brothers. But it was not until after World War I, thanks to extensive wartime developments with monoplanes, that a craft with no true fuselage became feasible. An early enthusiast was Hugo Junkers who patented the idea for a wing-only air transport in 1910.

Unfortunately, restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles on German aviation meant that his vision wasn’t realized until 1931 with the Junker’s G38. This design, though revolutionary, still required a short fuselage and a tail section in order to be aerodynamically possible.

*A restored Horten Ho 229 at Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Credits: Cynrik de Decker*

Flying wing designs were experimented with extensively in the 30’s and 40’s, especially in the US and Germany. In France, Britain and the US, many designs were produced, though most were gliders. However, there were exceptions, like the Northrop N1M, a prototype all-wing plane and the far more impressive Horten Ho 229, the first jet-powered flying wing that served as a fighter/bomber for the German air force in WWII.

This aircraft was part of a long series of experimental aircraft produced by Nazi Germany, and was also the first craft to incorporate technology that made it harder to detect on radar – aka. Stealth technology. However, whether this was intentional or an unintended consequence of its design remains the subject of speculation.

After WWII, this plane inspired several generations of experimental aircraft. The most notable of these are the YB-49 long-range bomber, the A-12 Avenger II, the B-2 Stealth Bomber (otherwise known as the Spirit), and a host of delta-winged aircraft, such as Canada’s own Avro-105, also known as the Avro Arrow.

Recent Developments:

More recent examples of aircraft that incorporate the flying wing design include the X-47B, a demonstration unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) currently in development by Northrop Grumman. Designed for carrier-based operations, the X-47B is a result of collaboration between the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the US Navy’s Unmanned Combat Air System Demonstration (UCAS-D) program.

The X-47B first flew in 2011, and as of 2015, its two active demonstrators successfully performed a series of airstrip and carrier-based landings. Eventually, Northrop Grumman hopes to develop the prototype X-47B into a battlefield-ready aircraft known the Unmanned Carrier-Launched Airborne Surveillance and Strike (UCLASS) system, which is expected to enter service in the 2020s.

Another take on the concept comes in the form of the bidirectional flying wing. This type of design consists of a long-span, low speed wing and a short-span, high speed wing joined in a single airframe in the shape of an uneven cross. The proposed craft would take off and land with the low-speed wing across the airflow, then rotate a quarter-turn so that the high-speed wing faces the airflow for supersonic travel.

The design is claimed to feature low wave drag, high subsonic efficiency and little or no sonic boom. The low-speed wings have likely a thick, rounded airfoil able to contain the payload and a wide span for high efficiency, while the high-speed wing would have a thin, sharp-edged airfoil and a shorter span for low drag at supersonic speed.

In 2012, NASA announced that it was in the process of funding the development of such a concept, known as the Supersonic Bi-Directional Flying Wing (SBiDir-FW). This came in the form of the Office of the Chief Technologist awarding a grant of $100,000 to a research group at the University of Miami (led by Professor Gecheng Zha) who were already working on such a plane.

Since the Wright Brothers first took to the air in a plane made of canvas and wood over a century ago, aeronautical engineers have thought long and hard about how we can improve upon the science of flight. Every once in awhile, there are those who will attempt to “reinvent the wheel”, throwing out the old paradigm and producing something truly revolutionary.

We have written many articles about the Flying Wing for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the testing of the prototype blended wing aircraft, and here are some jet pictures.

If you’d like more information on NASA’s aircraft programs, check out NASA’s Dryden photo collection, and here’s a link to various NASA research aircraft.

We’ve also recorded many related episodes of Astronomy Cast. Listen here, Episode 100: Rockets.

Sources:

October 3, 2010September 30, 2016 by Matt Williams

Who was the First Dog to go into Space?

Animals in Space — Laika before launch in 1957 (AP Photo/NASA)

Before man ever set foot on the moon or achieved the dream of breaking the Earth’s gravity and going into space, a dog did it first! Really, a dog? Well… yes, if the topic is the first animal to go into space, then it was a dog that beat man to the punch by about four years. The dog’s name was Laika, a member (after a fashion) of the Russian cosmonaut program. She was the first animal to go into space, to orbit the Earth, and, as an added – though dubious – honor, was also the first animal to die in space. Laika’s sacrifice paved the way for human spaceflight and also taught the Russians a few things about what would be needed in order for a human to survive a spaceflight.

Part of the Sputnik program, Laika’s was launched with the Sputnik 2 craft, the second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit. The satellite contained two cabins, one for its “crew”, the other for its various scientific instruments, which included radio transmitters, a telemetry system, temperature controls for the cabin, a programming unit, and two photometers for measuring solar radiation (ultraviolent and x-ray emissions) and cosmic rays. Like Sputnik 1, the satellite’s launch vehicle the R-7 Semyorka rocket, a ballistic missile that was responsible for placing the satellite into the upper atmosphere.

The mission began on November 3rd, 1957 and lasted 162 days before the orbit finally decayed and it fell back to Earth. No provisions were made for getting Laika safely back to Earth so it was expected ahead of time that she would die after ten days. However, it is now known that Laika died within a matter of hours after deployment from the R-7. At the time, the Soviet Union said she died painlessly while in orbit. More recent evidence however, suggests that she died as a result of overheating and panic. This was due to a series of technical problems which resulted from a botched deployment. The first was the damage that was done to the thermal system during separation, the second was some of the satellite’s thermal insulation being torn loose. As a result of these two mishaps, temperatures in the cabin reached over 40º C.

In spite of her untimely death, Laika’s flight astonished the world and outraged many animal rights activists. Her accomplishment was honored by many countries through a series of commemorative stamps. The mission itself also taught the Russians a great deal about the behavior of a living organism in space and brought back data about Earth’s outer radiation belt, which would be the subject of interests for future missions.

We have written many articles about Laika for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the first animal in space, and here’s an article about Russia sending monkeys to Mars.

If you’d like more info on Laika, check out NASA’s Imagine the Universe Article about Laika, and here’s a link to The First Dog in Space Article.

We’ve also recorded an entire episode of Astronomy Cast all about the Space Capsules. Listen here, Episode 124: Space Capsules, Part 1 – Vostok, Mercury and Gemini.

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laika
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/2367681.stm
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/space_level2/laika.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_program
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-7_rocket
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt

September 30, 2010December 24, 2015 by Tega Jessa

Where are Tornadoes likely to Occur

Tornado at Union City, Oklahoma Credit, NOAA Photo Library — Tornado at Union City, Oklahoma. Credit: NOAA Photo Library

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Everyone knows about tornadoes. You may have seen them in movies or heard about them in the news. However one of the most important facts for a person to know is where Tornadoes are likely to occur. This makes simple sense. If you want to avoid hurricanes you know that you should likely not live in the Gulf Coast or Florida. If you want to avoid the chance of mudslides you wouldn’t live in Oregon. Knowing where and how tornadoes can appear can help you stay safer and better prepared in case such a storm happens.

For the most part we know that Tornadoes as they are known in the United States are largely a North American phenomenon. The unique position and composition of North America’s topography gives thunderstorms enough space, time, and energy to form tornadoes. The traditional red zone for tornadoes is the Great Plains region of the United States called Tornado Alley. This region is known for spawning several tornadoes a year and in this region tracking storms and preparing for tornadoes is a way of life. The flat grasslands are perfect place for pressure systems to collide, creating powerful storms and in turn powerful tornadoes.

Interesting enough Tornado Alley is not the only area where tornadoes can happen. Tornadoes can occur anywhere in continental United States if the conditions for tornado formation are met. That means if you have a particularly strong thunderstorm system in your area with high winds there is a strong possibility of a Tornado happening.

The frequency of tornadoes happening outside the Tornado alley have increased with powerful storms ripping up areas that would be by conventional wisdom considered safe such as the Southeast or the Atlantic Seaboard.

One type of location that is generally safe from Tornadoes is the city. However recent events have proven that not likely doesn’t mean never. Two years ago a powerful tornado ripped through downtown Atlanta and doing major damage to the CNN headquarters. The other major tornado in a major city happened recently in New York City. A twister touched down in the Bronx in September of this year in the early morning hours also did serious property damage.

The danger of tornadoes in unlikely locations is that they are harder to spot. The tornado that struck Piedmont, Alabama became one of the deadliest on record because the area was hilly and full of trees. This made it impossible for residents to see the storm funnel approaching. This is why it is important for local news to have good weather tracking systems to properly warn residents in case of unusual weather conditions.

We have written many articles about tornadoes for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the Tornado Alley, and here’s an article about how tornadoes are formed.

If you’d like more info on tornadoes, check out the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Homepage. And here’s a link to NASA’s Earth Observatory.

We’ve also recorded an episode of Astronomy Cast all about planet Earth. Listen here, Episode 51: Earth.

September 30, 2010April 26, 2016 by Tega Jessa

Where are Stars Born?

Have you ever wondered where stars are born? Stars are formed in nebulas, interstellar clouds of dust and gas. Nebulas are either remnants of matter from the original big bang or the result of stars either collapsing or going supernova. Nebulas have long been noted and observed by astronomers but very little was known about them until the 21st century.

Galaxies because of their similar appearance were once thought of as nebulas. It was later determined that they were actually larger grouping of stars a great distance away from the Earth. So how are Nebulas star forming regions? The answers lie in the gravitational force and nuclear fusion.

Most nebulas are disparate clouds of gas and cosmic dust floating in the interstellar medium. Nebulas are the more dense parts of the gas and dust that exist in the space between stars and galaxies. We know due to the law of universal gravitation that every particle in the universe exerts an attractive force on every other particle. This happens over times with nebulas as the particles that make up the interstellar medium start to gather together.

Since gases have mass it is inevitable that the process will continue as great mass will create a stronger gravitational field. At some undefined point in time a tipping point between the gas pressure and the gravity of the nebula is crossed and the nebula collapses under its own gravity. Since molecular hydrogen is the most abundant element in the nebula the pressure from the collapse causes the nebula to undergo nuclear fusion. This starts the birth of a star.

As evidenced by how many stars and galaxies are in the universe you can see that is process that happens just about everywhere. More recently scientists have started become interested in how common it is for stars to from planets, especially those that are likely to support life. Scientists have recently discovered one such planet Gliese 581-g. This planet while closer to it star than Earth is well with in habitable zone necessary for liquid water and the right temperatures for life to occur.

The study of nebulas and the interstellar medium have yielded a lot important information about the formation and stars. As better telescopes and probes are created we will get a clearer picture about our universe and how it was formed and continues to grow over time.

We have written many articles about the birth of stars for Universe Today. Here’s an article about the star birth myth, and here’s an article about the birth of the biggest stars.

If you’d like more information on stars, check out Hubblesite’s News Releases about Stars, and here’s the stars and galaxies homepage.

We’ve done many episodes of Astronomy Cast about stars. Listen here, Episode 12: Where Do Baby Stars Come From?

References:
http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/stars_birth.html
http://sunshine.chpc.utah.edu/labs/star_life/starlife_proto.html