Posted on by Fraser Cain

Extremely Large Telescope Takes the Next Step

Astronomers from across Europe today (July 7th) took a step closer to making their plans for a giant telescope a reality when they unveiled the scientific case for an Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) – a monster telescope with a light capturing mirror of between 50 and 100 metres, dwarfing all previous optical telescope facilities. The announcement was made at a meeting in Dwingeloo, the Netherlands and initiates the design phase of the project. Astronomers plan to use the ELT to search for planets like the Earth in other star systems and to find out when the first stars in the Universe began to shine.

The first step when selecting the specifications and design options for a new telescope is for astronomers to establish the science that could be achieved with the facility. The science case launched today will be used in a Design Study funded by the European Union’s Framework 6 Programme and a Europe-wide consortium of partners, including industry, aimed at evaluating critical technologies needed to build a giant telescope, and led by the European Southern Observatory (ESO). The UK part of this ?30M programme is led by the UK Astronomy Technology Centre (UK ATC) and partly funded by the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (PPARC).

Roberto Gilmozzi, ESO’s coordinator of the ELT Design Study said, “The ELT Design Study initiative, a 31 MEuro activity partially funded by the FP6, shows the willingness of Europe to pursue a common path towards the eventual construction of an ELT. It is a design independent study of enabling technologies that brings together European institutes and industry to define a palette of ELT “building blocks” that indicate the way in which the telescope design should evolve to take advantage of the directions industry believes are most appropriate and cost effective.”

Bigger is better

The power of optical telescopes is limited by the size of the mirror that is used to collect light, which in turn determines how well they can distinguish between faint objects – the bigger the mirror, the fainter the object that the telescope will be able to see. For example, a 100m telescope with perfect compensation for atmospheric disturbances would be able to separate two points on the moon two metres apart, compared with 95m apart for the Hubble Space Telescope.

The quest for bigger mirrors has pushed current technologies to their limits. Some of the most advanced 8-10 metre telescopes now rely on mirrors constructed from smaller mirror segments, controlled by computers to act as a single large surface. These new techniques offer astronomers the opportunity for an unprecedented step-up in size. A 100m telescope would use a greater area of precision mirrors than has been made for all the previous telescopes ever built!

Dr Isobel Hook from the University of Oxford has led the working group producing the science case. She says “An Extremely Large Telescope is a very exciting prospect for astronomers. Something with a 50 or even 100 metre mirror could completely change our understanding of the Universe and answer truly fundamental questions such as ‘Is the Earth unique?’ and ‘How did the first stars and galaxies form?’. We will have much more information than ever before – it will be a bit like being there when the first telescopes were pointed at the sky.”

The next step

The European ELT Design Study is a five year project to explore the challenges of building an ELT, with most of the work being done in the initial three years. Every aspect of the ELT project will be examined, from site selection to instrumentation. It is due to report in 2008 at which time it will present a range of options to funding agencies.

The design study will provide the crucial technical information needed to make tough decisions at the next stage. This will involve balancing the size and design of the telescope against cost and time of first operation. Building work is likely to start in the next decade and the telescope could start scientific operations from 2015!

Professor Gerry Gilmore of the Institute of Astronomy Cambridge and Chair of the EU OPTICON network, said “Development of the ELT science case has involved over 100 European astronomers, and 3 years of work. All this happened because the astronomers want it: an ELT is overwhelmingly the scientifically favoured next major astronomy development, with widespread and strong community support. Turning this bottom-up support into a science case and a design study proposal needed some resources, and a trans-national support structure, both naturally available and provided by the EC-funded OPTICON infrastructure network. This proves that European astronomers are becoming a single community, and as such are now international leaders in astronomy.”

PPARC, the UK funding agency for astronomy, has earmarked ?2million for research and development of an ELT for the period to April 2008. ?500,000 of this is to support the design study concentrating on UK strengths in instrumentation and adaptive optics led by the UK ATC, in partnership with Durham and Oxford Universities. The remainder of the programme is under evaluation, but will concentrate on key technologies such as lightweight and adaptive mirrors to enable the science goals to be met at an affordable cost.

Colin Cunningham, Director of Technology Development at the UK ATC says “A telescope of 50 to 100m in diameter will have outstanding sensitivity and resolution -but to reach this performance at an affordable cost requires us to address many engineering and technology challenges. The UK will be at the heart of these efforts through its part in the EU-supported ELT Design Study and our UK R&D programme which will bring together academic and industrial partners in preparation for the design and construction phase of this exciting project.”

Original Source: PPARC News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Gemini Sees Rocky Material on Tempel 1

False colour image of Tempel 1 taken by Gemini North. Image credit: Gemini. Click to enlarge.
The Gemini North telescope on Mauna Kea successfully captured the dramatic fireworks display produced by the collision of NASA’s Deep Impact probe with Comet 9P/Tempel 1. Researchers in two control rooms on Hawaii?s Big Island (on Mauna Kea and in Hilo) were able to keep enough composure amid an almost giddy excitement to perform a preliminary analysis of the data. They concluded from the mid-infrared spectroscopic observations that there was strong evidence for silicates or rocky material exposed by the impact. Little doubt remains that the unprecedented quality of the Gemini data will keep astronomers busy for years.

?The properties of the mid-infrared light were completely transformed after impact,? said David Harker of the University of San Diego, co-investigator for the research team. ?In addition to brightening by a factor of about 4, the characteristics of the mid-infrared light was like a chameleon and within five minutes of the collision it looked like an entirely new object.? Harker?s research partner Chick Woodward of the University of Minnesota speculated further, ?We are possibly seeing crystalline silicates which might even be similar to the beach sand here in Hawaii! This data will keep us busy trying to figure out the size and composition of these grains to better understand the similarities and differences between the material contained within comets and other bodies in the solar system.?

In addition to the spectroscopic observations, before-and-after images were also obtained by the Gemini telescope in thermal infrared light and can be seen in Figure 1. Gemini monitored the comet for several weeks prior to the impact and will continue to watch it through the end of July.

The Gemini observations were part of a coordinated effort between the W.M. Keck, Subaru and Gemini Observatories so that each could concentrate on different observations and provide a complete, complementary ?picture? of the impact. Astronomers anticipate that the data gathered from the largest and most sophisticated set of telescopes positioned to see the impact will add considerably to our understanding of comets as dynamic probes of our solar system?s early evolution some 4.5-5 billion years ago.

The Gemini observations were made using Michelle, the facility mid-infrared imager/spectrograph built at the Royal Observatory of Edinburgh (ROE) in the UK. The instrument has unique capabilities in the mid-infrared especially at Gemini which uses protected silver coatings on main mirrors to provide exceptional performance in the ?thermal? or mid-infrared part of the spectrum.

Original Source: Gemini Observatory News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Layers of Minerals Tell the History of Mars

Panoramic view of Mars taken by NASA’s Spirit rover. Image credit: NASA/JPL. Click to enlarge.
Mars is a rocky planet with an ancient volcanic past, but new findings show the planet is more complex and active than previously believed – at least in certain places.

Finding those places, however, turns out to be trickier than just looking at landforms like river valleys or lakebeds or searching for specific minerals.

“Context is everything,” said Philip Christensen, Principal Investigator for the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) on Mars Global Surveyor and for the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) on Mars Odyssey, as well as lead scientist for the Mini-TES instruments on the Mars Exploration Rovers. “There has been a lot of excitement about finding specific features or minerals, but THEMIS, together with the TES infrared spectrometer, is giving us an overview by finding all the minerals. It gives us context – the underlying geology of the place.”

A paper led by Christensen, to be released online by the journal Nature on July 6, describes how a detailed examination of the Red Planet’s surface minerals using THEMIS and TES data yields surprising results in certain localized areas.

While the current rover missions have largely proved that in the distant past Mars may have had a lake or two, several different orbital mapping missions have found a basalt-rich planet that is the product of an ancient volcanic history. Geologically, it seems like a simple planet in the large scale – but then there are local windows showing far more complexity.

“From what we have seen to date, you might imagine going to Mars and seeing nothing but basalt,” said Christensen. “The evidence has always shown that the planet was active early, made some big volcanoes and then shut down and that was that. But when we looked more carefully we saw that there are these other places?When you look at the geology in the right spots, there is as much diversity in the rocks as you see on Earth.

“Once you get a glimpse of this complexity, you realize that there is a very complex world underneath that veneer of basalt.”

What Christensen and team found were localized deposits showing a distribution of igneous mineral types rivaling the range of minerals found on Earth – from primitive volcanic rocks like olivine-rich basalts to highly processed silica-rich rocks like granites.

The diversity of igneous minerals is important, Christensen explains, because it implies that the surface rocks have continued to be processed and reconstituted multiple times over an extended period of time.

“You melt the mantle and you get olivine basalts; you melt them again and you get basalt; you melt that and you make andesite; you melt that and you make dacite; you melt that and you make granite,” said Christensen. “Every time you re-melt a rock, the first thing to come off is the silica, so each time you melt it, you’re refining the silica.”

On Earth, such mineral evolution generally occurs as primitive volcanic rocks get folded back into the planet’s crust, re-melted and refined as faster melting components like silica separate out of the original material – a process known as mineral fractionation.

Mars, unlike Earth, does not have moving plates recycling the planet’s crust. However, Christensen’s results show that, like Earth, Mars has evolved and may still be evolving beneath the surface.

“Mars is a more complicated planet than we thought – the geology has kept chugging along and evolving over time,” Christensen said. “Though they’re not widespread, we’ve found dacite, and we’ve found granite. One way to make these granites is to make a whole volcano stacked up out of basalt – it gets tall enough and you begin to remelt the stuff deep down, and when you remelt the basalt, you can have granites forming.

“These are fairly small occurrences. On Earth, we have mountain ranges made of granite, on Mars we have so far only found a couple of globs. It’s not like the Earth in the extent of this geological evolution, but Mars is like the Earth in localized situations. It’s been hidden from us, but it’s a sophisticated, evolving planet after all,” he said.

Because the areas where the evolved igneous rocks occur are small, it has taken the high-resolution multispectral camera in Mars Odyssey’s THEMIS instrument (with a resolution of 100 meters) to find the minerals from orbit by finding a specific infrared signature in specific landforms. THEMIS’s mineral mapping has been 1500 times more detailed than TES’s, though the TES instrument’s infrared spectrometer (with a resolution of 3 kilometers) detects a much more detailed range of infrared emissions, making it more sensitive to different mineral compositions.

“We’re doing the thing that we set out to do: mapping the composition at mesoscales,” Christensen noted. “THEMIS identifies the area, then we go back and find what may be just a single, over-looked TES pixel and analyze it. The two were really planned to work together and that’s exactly what we’ve been doing. We use these two instruments in a synergistic way and together they’re perfect.”

Though Mars mapping has been going on for many years, Christensen notes that some of the most interesting places on the planet have yet to be identified and explored.

“If you drained the Earth’s oceans and looked at it from space, you would probably reach the same conclusion – a quiet, basaltic planet,” he said. “But then, if you searched carefully, you might find Yellowstone and realize that there was a lot going on below the surface of the planet that you weren’t aware of. We’re at that stage now in looking at Mars.”

Original Source: NASA Astrobiology

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Swift’s Take on Deep Impact

Swift’s view of Comet Tempel 1. Image credit: PSU. Click to enlarge.
Scientists using the Swift satellite witnessed a tale of fire and ice today, as NASA’s Deep Impact probe slammed into the frozen comet Tempel 1. The collision briefly lit the dim comet’s surface and exposed, for the first time, a section of ancient and virgin material from the comet’s interior.

Swift is providing the only simultaneous multi-wavelength observation of this rare event, with a suite of instruments capable of detecting optical light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. Different wavelengths reveal different secrets about the comet.

So far, after a set of eight observations each lasting about 50 minutes, Swift scientists have seen a quick and dramatic rise in ultraviolet light, evidence that the Deep Impact probe struck a hard surface, as opposed to a softer, snowy surface.

More observations and analysis are expected in the coming days from teams at NASA and Penn State and in Italy and the United Kingdom.

“We have now observed this comet before, during, and after the collision,” said Dr. Sally Hunsberger of the Swift Mission Operation Center at Penn State. “The comparison of observations at different times — that is, what was seen, when and at what wavelength — should prove to be quite interesting.”

Most of the debris observed in ultraviolet light likely came from once-icy surface material heated to 2,000 degrees by the impact. X-rays have not been detected yet but analysis will continue throughout the week. X-rays are expected to be emitted from newly liberated sub-surface material lifted into the comet’s coma, which is then illuminated by the high-energy solar wind from the Sun. It takes about a day, however, for the material to reach the coma.

“Some called it fireworks today, but it really was more like ‘iceworks,'” said Prof. Keith Mason, Director of Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College London, who organized the Swift observations. “Much of the comet is ice. It’s the other stuff deep inside we’re most interested in — pristine material from the formation of the solar system locked safely below the comet’s frozen surface. We don’t know exactly what we kicked up yet.”

Swift’s “day job” is detecting distant, natural explosions called gamma-ray bursts and creating a map of X-ray sources in the universe, far more energetic “fireworks.” Indeed, since beginning this Deep Impact campaign on July 1 — in addition to seeing comet Tempel 1 — Swift has seen a gamma-ray burst and a supernova and has discovered a black hole in the Milky Way galaxy. The satellite’s speed and agility, however, provides an important complement to the dozens of other world-class observatories in space and on Earth observing the Deep Impact experiment. Swift will continue to monitor the comet this week.

Comets are small astronomical objects usually in highly elliptical orbits around the sun. They are made primarily of frozen water, methane and carbon dioxide with a small amount of minerals. They likely originate in the Oort Cloud in the outskirts of the solar system. Comet Tempel 1 is about the size of Washington, D.C. Some scientists say that comets crashing into Earth billions of years ago brought water to our planet.

A comet becomes visible when radiation from the Sun evaporates its outer layers, creating a coma, the thin atmosphere. Solar wind impacts the coma to form the comet’s tail of dust and gas, which always points away from the Sun. Comets are best visible when they enter the inner solar system, closer to the Sun.

“The Deep Impact collision was the most watched astronomical event of the year,” said Dr. Neil Gehrels, Swift Principal Investigator at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. “All the ‘big-guns’ observatories tracked it. In the next few days, as material continues to fly off the comet from newly created vents, we will see whether Swift can offer new insight into comets by virtue of the high-energy light we are seeing.”

Prof. Mason and Prof. Alan Wells of the University of Leicester in England are at the Swift Mission Operation Center to help with the observation.

The Deep Impact mission is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California. Swift is a medium-class NASA explorer mission in partnership with the Italian Space Agency and the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council in the United Kingdom, and is managed by NASA Goddard. Penn State controls science and flight operations from the Mission Operations Center in University Park, Pennsylvania. The spacecraft was built in collaboration with national laboratories, universities and international partners, including Penn State University; Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico; Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, Calif.; Mullard Space Science Laboratory in Dorking, Surrey, England; the University of Leicester, England; Brera Observatory in Milan; and ASI Science Data Center in Frascati, Italy.

Original Source: PSU News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Solar Aircraft to Fly Around the World

Artist illustration of the Solar Impulse solar powered airplane. Image credit: ESA. Click to enlarge.
Swiss adventurer Bertrand Piccard is constructing a solar-powered plane to fly around the world. His aim is to support sustainable development by demonstrating what renewable energy and new technologies can achieve. ESA is assisting by making available European space technologies and expertise through its Technology Transfer Programme.

Bertrand Piccard made the first non-stop around the world balloon-flight in a Breitling Orbiter in 1999 with Brian Jones from Britain. Now together again, and with a team of 60 specialists, they are constructing an aircraft named Solar Impulse that will be powered only by sunlight.

“Solar Impulse will promote the idea of a new aviation era using cleaner planes powered by the almost infinite energy of the Sun rather than the dirty, finite reserves of fossil fuels,” says Bertrand Piccard.

“Although in its present design the craft will never be able to carry many passengers we believe that Solar Impulse can spark awareness about the technologies that can make sustainable development possible.”

ESA’s Technology Transfer Programme is providing technological expertise while the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) in Lausanne is the ‘Official Scientific Advisor’ for the project.

“The sun is the primary source of energy for our satellites as well as for Piccard’s plane. With the European space industry we have developed some of the most efficient solar cells, intelligent energy management systems and resourceful storage systems,” says Pierre Brisson, Head of ESA’s Technology Transfer Programme.

“We will make available this expertise, together with our advanced technologies, to support Piccard’s effort to demonstrate the potential of sustainable development.”

On its round the world flight, planned for 2010, the single-pilot Solar Impulse will be flown by three pilots flying in shifts: Bertrand Piccard, President and initiator of the project; Brian Jones, responsible for the sustainable development programme; and Andr? Borschberg from Switzerland, the Solar Impulse Chief Executive Officer.

The conceptual design is now in progress and a model of the plane was shown at the June Le Bourget air show. For the plane to be ready for flight in 2010 the following schedule must be kept:

* 2006-2007: detailed design and assembly of the plane
* 2008: first test flights and night flights
* 2009: solar flights of several days’ duration
* 2010 round-the-world flight

The round the world trip will take place in five stages, each of which will last three to five days. It will fly from west to east and between 10? and 30? north of the Equator to take advantage of the prevailing winds and sunlight.

Original Source: ESA News Release

Here’s an article about the biggest plane in the world.

Posted on by Fraser Cain

SOHO Nears 1,000th Comet Discovery

Artist illustration of a comet breaking up as it passes by the Sun. Image credit: NASA. Click to enlarge.
The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft is expected to discover its 1,000TH comet this summer. The SOHO spacecraft is a joint effort between NASA and the European Space Agency. It has accounted for approximately one-half of all comet discoveries with computed orbits in the history of astronomy.

“Before SOHO was launched, 16 sungrazing comets had been discovered by space observatories. Based on that experience, who could have predicted that SOHO would discover more than sixty times that number, and in only nine years? This is truly a remarkable achievement!” said Dr. Chris St. Cyr, Senior Project Scientist for NASA’s Living With a Star program at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.

Comets are chunks of ice and dust that zoom around the solar system in elongated orbits. This “dirty snowball” is the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei are thought to be cosmic leftovers, condensed remains of the gas and dust cloud that formed the solar system.

As a comet gets close to the Sun, solar heat liberates gas and dust from the nucleus, forming the coma, which is an extensive, bright cloud around the nucleus, and one or more tails. A comet’s dust tail can become millions of miles (kilometers) long as sunlight pushes the dust particles away from the Sun. Comets also have a tail of electrically charged particles (ions) that is usually fainter and is pushed away from the Sun by the solar wind, a thin stream of electrified gas that blows constantly from the Sun.

About 85 percent of the SOHO comets discovered so far belong to the Kreutz group of “sungrazing” comets, so named because their orbits take them very close to the Sun. The Kreutz sungrazers come within 500,000 miles (800,000 km) of the Sun’s visible surface. (Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, is about 36 million miles (57.6 million km) from the solar surface.) SOHO has also been used to discover three other well-populated comet groups: the Meyer (at least 55 members), Marsden (at least 21 members), and Kracht (24 members) groups. These comet groups are named after the astronomers who suggested that the comets are related because they have similar orbits.

Because comets in a group have similar orbits, they are believed to be fragments from a larger comet that broke apart. Sungrazing comets can break up as they approach the Sun due to the Sun’s gravity and heat. It is likely that small fragments continue to break off all around their orbits, because SOHO observes a stream with tiny Kreutz members reaching the Sun almost every day, and bits as small as these would have simply vaporized if this had happened near the Sun. Most of these comet fragments are not visible from Earth because their small size makes them extremely faint. A typical comet nucleus is as big as a mountain, while most of the SOHO comets are only as big as a large room or small house.

However, since the Kreutz group is so numerous, the parent comet that shattered to create Kreutz comets is estimated to have been truly immense, about 60 miles (100 km) across. The great comets of 1843 and 1882, with long tails that were spectacular to the naked eye were large Kreutz members, as was comet Ikeya-Seki in 1965. The 1882 and 1965 comets almost certainly broke off from each other the previous time they were near the Sun, when the combined comet was likely seen as the comet of 1106.

Many SOHO comet discoveries have been by amateurs using SOHO images on the internet. SOHO comet hunters come from all over the world; the United States, United Kingdom, China, Japan, Taiwan, Russia, Ukraine, France, Germany, and Lithuania are among the many countries whose citizens have used SOHO to chase comets.

Almost all SOHO’s comets are discovered using images from its Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) instrument. LASCO is used to observe the faint, multimillion-degree outer atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. A disk in the instrument is used to make an artificial eclipse, blocking direct light from the Sun so the much fainter corona can be seen. Sungrazing comets are discovered when they enter LASCO’s field of view as they pass close by the Sun. “Building coronagraphs like LASCO is still more art than science, because the light we are trying to detect is very faint,” said Dr. Joe Gurman, U.S. Project Scientist for SOHO at NASA Goddard. “Any imperfections in the optics or dust in the instrument will scatter the light, making the images too noisy to be useful. Discovering almost 1,000 comets since SOHO’s launch on December 2, 1995 is a testament to the skill of the LASCO team.”

SOHO successfully completed its primary mission in April 1998, and it has enough fuel to remain on station and keep hunting comets for decades, assuming the LASCO instrument continues to function. Additionally, NASA’s twin Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) spacecraft, scheduled for launch in February 2006, each have two instruments that could be used to discover comets: a coronagraph like LASCO and a heliospheric imager.

Original Source: NASA News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Artificial Meat Could Be Grown on a Large Scale

A magnified view of muscle fibres. Image credit: UM. Click to enlarge.
Experiments for NASA space missions have shown that small amounts of edible meat can be created in a lab. But the technology that could grow chicken nuggets without the chicken, on a large scale, may not be just a science fiction fantasy.

In a paper in the June 29 issue of Tissue Engineering, a team of scientists, including University of Maryland doctoral student Jason Matheny, propose two new techniques of tissue engineering that may one day lead to affordable production of in vitro – lab grown — meat for human consumption. It is the first peer-reviewed discussion of the prospects for industrial production of cultured meat.

“There would be a lot of benefits from cultured meat,” says Matheny, who studies agricultural economics and public health. “For one thing, you could control the nutrients. For example, most meats are high in the fatty acid Omega 6, which can cause high cholesterol and other health problems. With in vitro meat, you could replace that with Omega 3, which is a healthy fat.

“Cultured meat could also reduce the pollution that results from raising livestock, and you wouldn’t need the drugs that are used on animals raised for meat.”

Prime Without the Rib
The idea of culturing meat is to create an edible product that tastes like cuts of beef, poultry, pork, lamb or fish and has the nutrients and texture of meat.

Scientists know that a single muscle cell from a cow or chicken can be isolated and divided into thousands of new muscle cells. Experiments with fish tissue have created small amounts of in vitro meat in NASA experiments researching potential food products for long-term space travel, where storage is a problem.

“But that was a single experiment and was geared toward a special situation – space travel,” says Matheny. “We need a different approach for large scale production.”

Matheny’s team developed ideas for two techniques that have potential for large scale meat production. One is to grow the cells in large flat sheets on thin membranes. The sheets of meat would be grown and stretched, then removed from the membranes and stacked on top of one another to increase thickness.

The other method would be to grow the muscle cells on small three-dimensional beads that stretch with small changes in temperature. The mature cells could then be harvested and turned into a processed meat, like nuggets or hamburgers.

Treadmill Meat
To grow meat on a large scale, cells from several different kinds of tissue, including muscle and fat, would be needed to give the meat the texture to appeal to the human palate.

“The challenge is getting the texture right,” says Matheny. “We have to figure out how to ‘exercise’ the muscle cells. For the right texture, you have to stretch the tissue, like a live animal would.”

Where’s the Beef?
And, the authors agree, it might take work to convince consumers to eat cultured muscle meat, a product not yet associated with being produced artificially.

“On the other hand, cultured meat could appeal to people concerned about food safety, the environment, and animal welfare, and people who want to tailor food to their individual tastes,” says Matheny. The paper even suggests that meat makers may one day sit next to bread makers on the kitchen counter.

“The benefits could be enormous,” Matheny says. “The demand for meat is increasing world wide — China ‘s meat demand is doubling every ten years. Poultry consumption in India has doubled in the last five years.

“With a single cell, you could theoretically produce the world’s annual meat supply. And you could do it in a way that’s better for the environment and human health. In the long term, this is a very feasible idea.”

Matheny saw so many advantages in the idea that he joined several other scientists in starting a nonprofit, New Harvest, to advance the technology. One of these scientists, Henk Haagsman, Professor of Meat Science at Utrecht University, received a grant from the Dutch government to produce cultured meat, as part of a national initiative to reduce the environmental impact of food production.

Other authors of the paper are Pieter Edelman of Wageningen University , Netherlands ; Douglas McFarland, South Dakota State University ; and Vladimir Mironov, Medical University of South Carolina.

Original Source: UM News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Podcast: Summer at the Lake… on Titan

Ah, summer. Long relaxing days spent at the lake, just swimming, fishing, and enjoying the scenery. Think you can only enjoy lakes here on Earth? Well, think again. NASA’s Cassini spacecraft might have turned up a lake on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon. It might not be the kind of lake you’re used to though. The average temperature on Titan is only a hundred degrees above Absolute Zero, so it’s probably a lake of liquid hydrocarbons. Carolyn Porco is the leader on the imaging team on the Cassini mission to Saturn and the director for the Center of Imaging Operations at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado. That’s where the images from Cassini are processed and released to the public.
Continue reading “Podcast: Summer at the Lake… on Titan”

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Audio: Summer at the Lake… on Titan

Possible lake on Titan. Image credit: NASA/JPL/SSI. Click to enlarge.
Listen to the interview: Summer at the Lake… on Titan (6 MB)

Or subscribe to the Podcast: universetoday.com/audio.xml

Fraser Cain: Let’s say I’m standing on the surface of Titan beside this feature, what would I be seeing?

Carolyn Porco: Well, we’re not absolutely sure, but if it is, in fact, a lake of hydrocarbons, then you would see something that would look rather dark. It may have some materials disolved in it and perhaps waves would be lapping up at the shore which would of course be ice, water ice. Mind you, it’s incredibly cold. Overall, the scene would be very dark because high noon on Titan is like deep Earth twilight, and it might even be possibly raining methane because this feature has been found in the place on Titan where there seems to be the most clouds and therefore the greatest likelihood of rain. Not that Titan is a very cloudy place, mind you. We haven’t seen many clouds on Titan. Where we’ve seen clouds is mostly in the south polar region where this feature the size of Lake Ontario has been found.

Fraser: Now I know that images of Titan taken by Voyager and other telescopes show it as a very smoggy, cloudy world. So, how can we see the lake?

Porco: There’s a difference between smog, haze and then clouds. Clouds are particulates of some condensable material; it could be liquid droplets or the fact is if they’re high enough they could be solid particles. On the Earth, cirrus clouds are made of water ice, unlike your normal cumulous clouds that rain on you; they rain liquid water. So we could have a similar thing going on Titan, except the material, of course, is methane. But as I said, there aren’t many clouds. It’s not clouds which are making the surface of Titan so difficult to see from high above. It’s haze particles – these are haze particles, like smog particles on Earth – probably made, almost certainly made, of hydrocarbon materials, polymers probably, of carbons all linked together. These are very small particles, but the atmosphere is very very thick; hundreds of kilometres thick with this stuff. If you’re standing on the surface, you can, of course, see the surface and see even to the horizon, and a bit through it. Mind you, recall what the images taken by the Huygens probe looked like. We could see to the horizon, once the probe was on the surface and took pictures, we could see to the horizon. But if you look up through the very thick atmosphere, or if you’re above looking down, then your path through this thick atmosphere filled with haze is so long, that it’s difficult for visible light to get through. And of course, we see with visible light. In images taken with Voyager, and Voyager had a camera that could look only to the long end of where humans see with their eyes; in fact, a little beyond where we see with our eyes. But nonetheless, not far enough to see down to the surface of Titan. But with the Cassini cameras, we have used a trick that was discovered basically by ground-based astronomers. If you go to the longer wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, you go into the near-infrared, you can in fact see down to the surface of Titan. Those are the wavelengths that we have used to image the surface of Titan with our cameras, and of course, it is in those wavelengths that we discovered this lakelike feature on the surface.

Fraser: Now, if it isn’t a lake of liquid hydrocarbon, what else could it be?

Porco: Well, we’re not completely sure, 100% sure, that it’s filled with liquid. Perhaps it was a depression that once was filled with liquid, and all the liquid has since evaporated, and we’re now seeing the residue of what was left behind. So it could be solid hydrocarbons that still would form a flat surface. You could imagine a salt lake bed on the Earth; the salt having been left behind after the water evaporated. So we could be seeing something that is just solid material. That’s the two basic possiblities: it could be solid material or it could be liquid. We won’t know for sure whether or not it’s liquid until we have the opportunity to see a reflection of the Sun in the surface of this body; a specular reflection, or mirror like reflection like you can see if you’re flying in an airplane over Minnesota for example. Looking down on the ground and it’s daylight, you can see specular reflections; you can see the image of the Sun glinting off the surface of all the many lakes that dot the landscape of Minnesota.

Fraser: That’s incredible, you’ll be able to see that?

Porco: We won’t be able to see that with our cameras, probably, because the geometry won’t allow us to. The solar illumination geometry and the fact that, at the wavelengths that even the Cassini cameras can see, if we look through too long a path length in the atmosphere, things get very hazy and fuzzy, and we don’t get a clear view of the surface. However, there are other instruments on Cassini that work at longer wavelengths than we do, and they go further into the near infrared. They have an easier time seeing down to the surface, and it’s possible – we have to check the upcoming encounters with Titan. So this is not a certainty yet, but at least in principle it’s possible that they could see a mirror like reflection off the surface of this body, if in fact it’s liquid. The jury is still out on this, and we may be lucky to have the kind of circumstances on future flybys of Titan to catch whether or not it’s truly liquid.

Fraser: When will Cassini have a chance to revisit the area?

Porco: I’m not quite certain of that. There are people on my team who are busy planning the Titan flybys; planning the imaging sequences for each of the upcoming Titan flybys would know that better than I do. But I think it may not be until later on in the tour when we really have a good look again at this feature. As I’ve said many times, it’s going to take us years to work out what’s truly going on on the surface of Titan. We come by it many times during the course of this mission, which ends nominally in the middle of 2008. If we’re lucky enough, and the American Congress is willing, we’ll get an extension, and we could be observing bodies in the Saturn system for the next decade. But right now we have something like 39 further encounters with Titan.

Fraser: And if it does turn out to be liquid hydrocarbon, what does that tell you about Titan’s geology or its history?

Porco: It tells that at least in part, the thinking that we had about the methane cycle on Titan, and the amount of methane in the atmosphere is correct. Because there had been predictions that the surface of Titan would have some liquids on the surface. And we haven’t seen as many as some of the models had predicted, but if there is any at all, that gives a source of the methane that’s in the atmosphere, if there’s some liquid on the surface. Of course, the next question is: how did that amount of methane get into the atmosphere to begin with? Did it come from volcanoes, or did it come from some other source? The question of how methane can even exist right now on the surface of Titan, when we know it’s being broken up in the upper atmosphere. But still, it confirms for us, at least in part, some of our thinking about what is going on between the surface and the atmosphere, and that’s interesting to know. This is another atmosphere, in many ways similar to our Earth. It gives us another example to study in learning about our own atmosphere. Bear in mind that Titan also has a kind of mild greenhouse effect going on. It’s surface temperature is 12-degrees Kelvin greater than it would be otherwise, if there were no methane in its atmosphere. So, we stand to learn a lot about our own planet, and what makes our own planet unique, and what makes it have anything in common at all with some other body, like Titan, by studying Saturn’s largest moon.

Fraser: Have you imaged Titan well enough now to know that this is the only feature like this on the planet?

Porco: Oh, not by a long shot. We’re just beginning here. These are early days. I don’t know what percentage of the surface has been covered yet, but it’s still a small fraction at the kind of resolution that we would need to see these kinds of features. So no, we have a long way to go, and I think there’s going to be a lot more exciting discoveries in store, so stay tuned is the message really.

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