Posted on by Fraser Cain

Early Earth was Warm, Despite Less Energy From the Sun

Image credit: Stanford
If a time machine could take us back 4.6 billion years to the Earth’s birth, we’d see our sun shining 20 to 25 percent less brightly than today. Without an earthly greenhouse to trap the sun’s energy and warm the atmosphere, our world would be a spinning ball of ice. Life may never have evolved.

But life did evolve, so greenhouse gases must have been around to warm the Earth. Evidence from the geologic record indicates an abundance of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Methane probably was present as well, but that greenhouse gas doesn’t leave enough of a geologic footprint to detect with certainty. Molecular oxygen wasn’t around, indicate rocks from the era, which contain iron carbonate instead of iron oxide. Stone fingerprints of flowing streams, liquid oceans and minerals formed from evaporation confirm that 3 billion years ago, Earth was warm enough for liquid water.

Now, the geologic record revealed in some of Earth’s oldest rocks is telling a surprising tale of collapse of that greenhouse — and its subsequent regeneration. But even more surprising, say the Stanford scientists who report these findings in the May 25 issue of the journal Geology, is the critical role that rocks played in the evolution of the early atmosphere.

“This is really the first time we’ve tried to put together a picture of how the early atmosphere, early climate and early continental evolution went hand in hand,” said Donald R. Lowe, a professor of geological and environmental science who wrote the paper with Michael M. Tice, a graduate student investigating early life. NASA’s Exobiology Program funded their work. “In the geologic past, climate and atmosphere were really profoundly influenced by development of continents.”

The record in the rocks
To piece together geologic clues about what the early atmosphere was like and how it evolved, Lowe, a field geologist, has spent virtually every summer since 1977 in South Africa or Western Australia collecting rocks that are, literally, older than the hills. Some of the Earth’s oldest rocks, they are about 3.2 to 3.5 billion years old.

“The further back you go, generally, the harder it is to find a faithful record, rocks that haven’t been twisted and squeezed and metamorphosed and otherwise altered,” Lowe says. “We’re looking back just about as far as the sedimentary record goes.”

After measuring and mapping rocks, Lowe brings samples back to Stanford to cut into sections so thin that their features can be revealed under a microscope. Collaborators participate in geochemical and isotopic analyses and computer modeling that further reveal the rocks’ histories.

The geologic record tells a story in which continents removed the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from an early atmosphere that may have been as hot as 70 degrees Celsius (158 F). At this time the Earth was mostly ocean. It was too hot to have any polar ice caps. Lowe hypothesizes that rain combined with atmospheric carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid, which weathered jutting mountains of newly formed continental crust. Carbonic acid dissociated to form hydrogen ions, which found their way into the structures of weathering minerals, and bicarbonate, which was carried down rivers and streams to be deposited as limestone and other minerals in ocean sediments.

Over time, great slabs of oceanic crust were pulled down, or subducted, into the Earth’s mantle. The carbon that was locked into this crust was essentially lost, tied up for the 60 million years or so that it took the minerals to get recycled back to the surface or outgassed through volcanoes.

The hot early atmosphere probably contained methane too, Lowe says. As carbon dioxide levels fell due to weathering, at some point, levels of carbon dioxide and methane became about equal, he conjectures. This caused the methane to aerosolize into fine particles, creating a haze akin to that which today is present in the atmosphere of Saturn’s moon Titan. This “Titan Effect” occurred on Earth 2.7 to 2.8 billion years ago.

The Titan Effect removed methane from the atmosphere and the haze filtered out light; both caused further cooling, perhaps a temperature drop of 40 to 50 degrees Celsius. Eventually, about 3 billion years ago, the greenhouse just collapsed, Lowe and Tice theorize, and the Earth’s first glaciation may have occurred 2.9 billion years ago.

The rise after the fall
Here the rocks reveal an odd twist in the story — eventual regeneration of the greenhouse. Recall that 3 billion years ago, Earth was essentially Waterworld. There weren’t any plants or animals to affect the atmosphere. Even algae hadn’t evolved yet. Primitive photosynthetic microbes were around and may have played a role in the generation of methane and minor usage of carbon dioxide.

As long as rapid continental weathering continued, carbonate was deposited on the oceanic crust and subducted into what Lowe calls “a big storage facility … that kept most of the carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.”

But as carbon dioxide was removed from the atmosphere and incorporated into rock, weathering slowed down — there was less carbonic acid to erode mountains and the mountains were becoming lower. But volcanoes were still spewing into the atmosphere large amounts of carbon from recycled oceanic crust.

“So eventually the carbon dioxide level climbs again,” Lowe says. “It may never return to its full glorious 70 degrees Centigrade level, but it probably climbed to make the Earth warm again.”

This summer, Lowe and Tice will collect samples that will allow them to determine the temperature of this time interval, about 2.6 to 2.7 billion years ago, to get a better idea of how hot Earth got.

New continents formed and weathered, again taking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. About 3 billion years ago, maybe 10 or 15 percent of the Earth’s present area in continental crust had formed. By 2.5 billion years ago, an enormous amount of new continental crust had formed — about 50 to 60 percent of the present area of continental crust. During this second cycle, weathering of the larger amount of rock caused even greater atmospheric cooling, spurring a profound glaciation about 2.3 to 2.4 billion years ago.

Over the past few million years we have been oscillating back and forth between glacial and interglacial epochs, Lowe says. We are in an interglacial period right now. It’s a transition — and scientists are still trying to understand the magnitude of global climate change caused by humans in recent history compared to that caused by natural processes over the ages.

“We’re disturbing the system at rates that greatly exceed those that have characterized climatic changes in the past,” Lowe said. “Nonetheless, virtually all of the experiments, virtually all of the variations and all of the climate changes that we’re trying to understand today have happened before. Nature’s done most of these experiments already. If we can analyze ancient climates, atmospheric compositions and the interplay among the crust, atmosphere, life and climate in the geologic past, we can take some first steps at understanding what is happening today and likely to happen tomorrow.”

Original Source: Stanford News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Opportunity’s Exit Strategy

Image credit: NASA/JPL
The Opportunity rover continues to cruise around the rocky rim of Endurance Crater, which is about stadium-sized in diameter. The false color image (banner) was taken by the navigation camera on May 21, 2004. This crater excavated by the impact of a tiny asteroid or a piece of a comet is about 130 meters (430 feet) wide and, from the highest point on the rim, more than 20 meters (66 feet) deep, 10 times as deep as Eagle.

An exposure of outcrop in a cliff high on the inner wall across from the rover’s current position reveals a stack of layers 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 feet) tall. Other exposures around the inner slope of the crater may be more accessible than the cliff, and chunks from the same layers may have been thrown out onto surrounding ground by the crater-forming impact.

Team members are analyzing images like these in detail while searching for the safest route to enter and exit the steep crater. In addition to slope, good entry and exit paths are sought where stable rock predominates over loose sand which may cause slippage or loss of wheel traction. The best current candidate is a portion of Endurance called Karatepe.

In the Mars simulation environment on Earth, called the JPL sandbox or ‘Mars Yard’, mobility experts, scientists and engineers are testing the rover’s slip limits at a twenty-five degree tilt.

Inside Endurance Crater are multiple layers of exposed rocks that might provide information about a much longer period of environmental history. From the viewpoints around the rim, Opportunity’s miniature thermal emission spectrometer is returning data for mapping the mineral composition of the rocks exposed in the crater’s interior.

At Eagle Crater, an outcrop of bedrock only about the height of a street curb yielded evidence that the site was once covered by a body of salty water deep enough to splash in. “That was the last dying gasp of a body of water,” principal investigator Steve Squyres said. “The question that has intrigued us since we left Eagle Crater is what preceded that. Was there a deep body of water for a long time? Was there a shallow, short-lived playa? We don’t know.”

Although the stack of rock layers at Endurance is more than 10 times thicker than the bedrock exposure at Eagle Crater, it is still only a small fraction of the 200-meter-thick (650-foot-thick) stack seen from orbit at some other locations in Mars’ Meridian Planum region.

A close-up look at the Endurance Crater rocks could help with interpreting the other exposures seen from orbit. “It’s possible that the whole stack was deposited in water — some particles washed in by flowing water and others chemically precipitated out of the water,” said Dr. Phil Christensen of Arizona State University, Tempe, lead scientist for the rover’s spectrometer. “An alternative is that wind blew sand in.”

Brian Cooper, leader of JPL’s squad of rover drivers for Spirit and Opportunity, said the initial view of the crater doesn’t settle accessibility questions yet. “The slope right in front of us averages 18 to 20 degrees. Getting into the crater is no problem, but we have a lot more work to do to assess whether we could get back out. That depends on soil properties and slippage, as well as slope.” The planned circuit around the rim will also require careful navigation. “If you don’t go close enough to the lip, you can’t look in, but if you go too far, you could fall in,” he said. “We’re going to have a very interesting few weeks.”

When the rover tried to exit its much smaller (20 meter diameter) Eagle Crater–the mission’s initial landing site–the exit slope proved steep enough to lose wheel traction until a backup plan to maneuver through loose sand friction with six-wheel contacts.

When NASA sent astronauts to the lunar surface more than 30 years ago, it was decided not to allow them to enter craters as fresh and steep as Endurance, but Opportunity may be able to do what no human has done before on another planet.

Original Source: Astrobiology Magazine

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Venus Returns, Right on Schedule

Sky watchers from around the globe had the opportunity to witness a rare transit of Venus across the surface of the Sun – an event that hasn’t happened for 122 years. Observatories and amateur astronomers made their equipment available to the public so they could watch the black disk of Venus make the transit for themselves. Most of the Americas had a poor view of the transit this time around, but they’ll have a front seat when the next one occurs in 8 years.

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Resources for the Venus Transit

If you’re lucky, you’ve got a front row view of Venus as it transits across the face of the Sun. That means you’re in Europe, Africa or Asia, you’ve got the proper equipment to filter the Sun, and the weather is cooperating. If you’re like me, you lack all three. Don’t worry, though, the Internet is coming to our rescue.

Astronomers and spacecraft are going to be watching the show and broadcasting what they see in real time so anyone with an Internet connection can stay tuned as the transit progresses.

For starters, educate yourself about the transit, including safety tips and the locations of groups viewing it live. There’s great information from ASTRONET, the European Southern Observatory and NASA.

Next, tune into some spacecraft. You can see the view from SOHO, TRACE, and IMAGE. Finally, settle in with a ground-based observatory. Here’s a complete list of more than 100 observatories broadcasting from Astronet.

The show begins at 0513 UTC (aka Greenwich Mean Time). That’s the same as 1:13 am EDT or 10:13 pm PDT (June 7). The whole transit will take about 6 hours to complete.

Let me know how the transit goes for you. Did you make a special trip, or just look from your backyard? Or, like me, do you have to watch it through the Internet?

And send in your pictures, either of Venus, or of you and your friends out in the sunshine, enjoying the show. 🙂

Good luck!

Fraser Cain
Publisher
Universe Today

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Gas Clouds in the Whirlpool Galaxy

Image credit: NRAO
Astronomers studying gas clouds in the famous Whirlpool Galaxy have found important clues supporting a theory that seeks to explain how the spectacular spiral arms of galaxies can persist for billions of years. The astronomers applied techniques used to study similar gas clouds in our own Milky Way to those in the spiral arms of a neighbor galaxy for the first time, and their results bolster a theory first proposed in 1964.

The Whirlpool Galaxy, about 31 million light-years distant, is a beautiful spiral in the constellation Canes Venatici. Also known as M51, it is seen nearly face-on from Earth and is familiar to amateur astronomers and has been featured in countless posters, books and magazine articles.

“This galaxy made a great target for our study of spiral arms and how star formation works along them,” said Eva Schinnerer, of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Socorro, NM. “It was ideal for us because it’s one of the closest face-on spirals in the sky,” she added.

Schinnerer worked with Axel Weiss of the Institute for Millimeter Radio Astronomy (IRAM) in Spain, Susanne Aalto of the Onsala Space Observatory in Sweden, and Nick Scoville of Caltech. The astronomers presented their findings to the American Astronomical Society’s meeting in Denver, Colorado.

The scientists analyzed radio emission from Carbon Monoxide (CO) molecules in giant gas clouds along M51’s spiral arms. Using telescopes at Caltech’s Owens Valley Radio Observatory and the 30-meter radio telescope of IRAM, they were able to determine the temperatures and amounts of turbulence within the clouds. Their results provide strong support for a theory that “density waves” explain how spiral arms can persist in a galaxy without winding themselves so tightly that, in effect, they disappear.

The density-wave theory, proposed by Frank Shu and C.C. Lin in 1964, says that a galaxy’s spiral pattern is a wave of higher density, or compression, that revolves around the galaxy at a speed different from that of the galaxy’s gas and stars. Schinnerer and her colleagues studied a region in one of M51’s spiral arms that presumably has just overtaken and passed through the density wave.

Their data indicate that gas on the trailing edge of the spiral arm, which has most recently passed through the density wave, is both warmer and more turbulent than gas in the forward edge of the arm, which would have passed through the density wave longer ago.

“This is what we would expect from the density-wave theory,” Schinnerer said. “The gas that passed through the density wave earlier has had time to cool and lose the turbulence caused by the passage,” she added.

“Our results show, for the first time, how the density wave operates on a cloud-cloud scale, and how it promotes and prevents star formation in spiral arms,” Aalto said.

The next step, the scientists say, is to look at other spiral galaxies to see if a similar pattern is present. That will have to wait, Schinnerer said, because the radio emission from CO molecules that provides the information on temperature and turbulence is very faint.

“When the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) comes on line, it will have the ability to extend this type of study to other galaxies. We look forward to using ALMA to test the density-wave model more thoroughly,” Schinnerer said. ALMA is a millimeter-wave observatory that will use 64, 12-meter-diameter dish antennas on the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. Now under construction, ALMA will provide astronomers with an unprecedented capability to study the Universe at millimeter wavelengths.

The Whirlpool Galaxy was discovered by the French comet-hunter Charles Messier on October 13, 1773. He included it as object number 51 in his now-famous catalog of astronomical objects that, in a small telescope, might be mistaken for a comet. In 1845, the British astronomer Lord Rosse discovered the spiral structure in the galaxy. For amateur astronomers using telescopes in dark-sky locations, M51 is a showpiece object.

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation, operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc.

Original Source: NRAO News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Cassini’s Orbital Entry Spot

Image credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute
The path that lies ahead for the Cassini -Huygens mission is indicated in this image which illustrates where the spacecraft will be just 27 days from now, when it arrives at Saturn and crosses the ring plane 25 minutes before performing its critical orbital insertion maneuver.

The X indicates the point where Cassini will pierce the ring plane on June 30, 2004, going from south to north of the ring plane, 25 minutes before the main engine fires to begin orbital insertion. The indicated point is between the narrow F-ring on the left and Saturn?s tenuous G-ring which is too faint to be seen in this exposure.

The image was taken on May 11, 2004 when the spacecraft was 26.3 million kilometers (16.3 million miles) from Saturn. Image scale is 158 kilometers (98 miles) per pixel. Moons visible in this image: Janus (181 kilometers, 113 miles across), one of the co-orbital moons; Pandora (84 kilometers, 52 miles across), one of the F ring shepherding moons; and Enceladus (499 kilometers, 310 miles across), a moon which may be heated from within and thus have a liquid sub-surface ocean.

The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Cassini-Huygens mission for NASA’s Office of Space Science, Washington, D.C. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colorado.

For more information about the Cassini-Huygens mission, visit http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the Cassini imaging team home page, http://ciclops.org.

Original Source: CICLOPS News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Transit of Venus Starts Soon

Image credit: NASA
Want to see the 2004 Transit of Venus? Be prepared to wake up early.

On Tuesday morning, June 8th, for the first time since 1882, Venus will pass directly between Earth and the Sun. For six hours the planet’s black silhouette will crawl across the face of our star. It might be a pretty sight, or not. No one can say for sure because no one alive today has seen a transit of Venus.

If you live near the east coast of North America, you can see the crossing. The transit will be underway at dawn and visible for as much as two hours after sunrise.

Before you read the rest of this story, a reminder: Never look at the Sun without eye protection. The early morning Sun rising through the mist, reddened and dimmed by distant clouds, is so tempting; it seems safe to stare. Don’t! Even a low-hanging Sun can cause eye damage. Proper transit-watching techniques are discussed below.

The transit begins at 1:13 a.m. EDT (in the middle of the night) and ends at 7:26 a.m. EDT. If you can see the Sun before 7:26 a.m. EDT, then you can see the transit. Sky watchers east of the Mississippi River are favored. The transit will not be visible at all from Mexico, British Columbia and the following US states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Montana, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wyoming.

A transit of Venus isn’t like a solar eclipse. The Sun won’t be blotted out or even noticeably dimmed. Venus is too small; the disk of the planet covers only 0.1% of the Sun.

Although Venus is tiny, you can probably see it without magnification. Try looking through a safe solar filter, for example, #13 or #14 welder’s glass or special “eclipse glasses” designed for solar viewing. (Do NOT use stacked sunglasses, metallized candy wrappers or compact disks; these are unsafe filters often recommended in error.) Seen through a good filter, the Sun looks like a glowing disk, about the size of the Moon, marked with a black speck–Venus.

The view is much better through a telescope. But beware: sunlight focused through a telescope can blind you instantly. There are two ways to to safely observe using a telescope:

Solar projection is one way. Align your telescope with the Sun. Do not look through the telescope or its finder scope; use shadows on the ground to effect the alignment. The shadow of a telescope looks skinniest when it is pointing directly at the Sun. Once the Sun is in the field of view, an image will shoot out of the eyepiece. Hold a white screen behind your ‘scope and, voila: a picture of the Sun. Adjust the focus of the telescope (or the distance between the eyepiece and the screen) until Venus looks crisp and round.

Solar filters are another way. Capping your telescope with a suitable sun-filter can reduce the intensity of sunlight to safe levels. Then you can look right through the eyepiece. If you’re not sure what filter is safe, contact the vendor of your telescope to ask for advice.

In addition to Venus, you’ll likely see one or two sunspots. These are planet-sized islands of magnetism floating on the Sun’s surface. Compare the two: Venus’ silhouette is dark and round like a planet. Sunspots are not so dark; and they are delightfully irregular.

A moment of special interest is “third contact” at 7:07 a.m. EDT. This is when Venus’ silhouette touches the Sun’s limb and starts its 20-minute egress from the solar disk. Third contact is the beginning of the end of the transit.

Moments before third contact, watch out for the infamous “black drop effect.” The black of space beyond the Sun’s limb will seem to reach in and touch Venus, merging with the planet to form an elongated black drop. You can recreate the black drop effect with your thumb and index finger: Hold the two in front of one eye and narrow the distance between them. Just before they touch, a shadowy bridge will spring across the gap. According to John Westfall, writing for Sky & Telescope magazine in June 2004, “this is simply the result of how two fuzzy bright-to-dark gradients add together.” The black drop effect was troublesome to 18th and 19th century astronomers who tried to measure the solar system by timing transits of Venus.

Troublesome then, fun and challenging now.

If you plan to try observing Venus on June 8th, you might want to practice on June 6th or 7th. Set up your telescope in a place where you’ll have a clear view of the Sun rising over the eastern horizon. Can you project an image of sunspots onto a wall or screen? If so, you’re ready for Venus.

And if you oversleep … mark your calendar for the next transit of Venus: June 6, 2012. Good luck!

Original Source: NASA Science Article

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Opportunity Will Enter the Crater

Image credit: NASA/JPL
NASA has decided the potential science value gained by sending Opportunity into a martian impact crater likely outweighs the risk of the intrepid explorer not being able to get back out.

Opportunity has been examining the rim of stadium-sized “Endurance” crater since late May. The rover team used observations of the depression to evaluate potential science benefits of entering the crater and the traversability of its inner slopes.

The soonest Opportunity could enter Endurance is early next week. It will drive to the top of a prospective entry-and-
exit route on the southern edge of the crater and make a final check of the slope. If the route is no steeper than what recent testing runs at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., suggest a rover can climb, controllers plan to radio Opportunity the command to go into the crater.

“This is a crucial and careful decision for the Mars Exploration Rovers’ extended mission,” said Dr. Edward Weiler, NASA’s Associate Administrator for Space Science. “Layered rock exposures inside Endurance Crater may add significantly to the story of a watery past environment that Opportunity has already begun telling us. The analysis just completed by the rover team shows likelihood that Opportunity will be able to drive to a diagnostic rock exposure, examine it, and then drive out of the crater. However, there’s no guarantee of getting out again, so we also considered what science opportunities outside the crater would be forfeited if the rover spends its remaining operational life inside the crater.”

At a rock outcrop in a small impact feature nicknamed, “Eagle Crater,” where Opportunity first landed, the rover found small-scale rock textures and evaporite mineral compositions testifying that a body of salty water covered the site long ago.

The wet environment may have been a suitable habitat for life, if it ever existed on Mars. However, only the uppermost layer of the region’s layered crust was exposed at Eagle Crater, not deeper layers that could reveal what the environment was like earlier.

The rock layer seen at Eagle Crater appears at Endurance Crater, too. At Endurance, though, it lies above exposures of thicker, older layers, which are the main scientific temptation for sending Opportunity inside the crater.

“Answering the question of what came before the evaporites is the most significant scientific issue we can address with Opportunity at this time,” said Dr. Steve Squyres of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., principal investigator for the science instruments on both rovers. “We’ve read the last chapter, the record of the final gasps of an evaporating body of water. What came before? It could have been a deep-water environment. It could have been sand dunes. It could have been a volcano. Whatever we learn about that earlier period will help us interpret the upper layer’s evidence for a wet environment and understand how the environment changed.”

Richard Cook, project manager at JPL for the rovers, said that reaching one exposure of the older rock layers inside Endurance requires driving only about 5 to 7 meters (16 to 23 feet) into the 130-meter-diameter (140-yard-diameter) crater. The rover is on the rim at that site, which had been dubbed “Karatepe.”

“We’ll take an incremental approach, edging our way down to the target,” Cook said. The plan is to use the tools on Opportunity’s robotic arm to analyze the exposed layers for several days, then drive in reverse back up the slope and exit the crater. The slope between the rim and the layered outcrop at Karatepe is about 25 degrees.

“We have done testing that says we can do 25 degrees, provided the wheels are on a rock surface and not loose sand,” Cook said. Engineers and scientists on the rover team built a test surface mimicking the rocks and sand seen in Opportunity’s images of Endurance Crater. The surface was tilted to 25 degrees, and a test rover climbed it. If portions of the route to the outcrop turn out to be between 25 and 30 degrees, the team plans to proceed slowly and use Opportunity to assess the amount of traction the rover is getting.

Opportunity and its twin, Spirit, successfully completed their primary three-month missions on Mars in April.

JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA’s Office of Space Science, Washington. Images and additional information about the project are available from JPL at:

http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov

Posted on by Mark Mortimer

Book Review: The Fabric of the Cosmos

And to add life you need to know what it is all about. Consider that most people believe humans are not at the centre of everything. So if we’re not at the centre, then where exactly are we? Well, centre is pretty much a matter of perspective, and when considering the cosmos, there is a lot of perspective. Newton had things nicely arranged by putting equations and relationships onto macroscopic objects. He had forces and masses and orbits, but he was a little wishy washy on what held it all together. Were the visible constituents all that there was, or was there more? The answer, we know, is, of course, there is more. There are atoms, photons and quarks. Even more tantalizing are fields. Magnetic or electric fields extend from a source to a destination without needing intermediary material. This then is the ticket. This defines the constituents of our surroundings, our existence, our life.

But is this as deep as things get, or can we get deeper? As we delve into smaller and smaller realms, some of our traditional observations and laws get broken. Communication is not supposed to go faster than the speed of light. Yet there is nonlocality, the instantaneous transfer of information, that has been observed when identifying the spin of electrons. And speaking of electrons, those sneaky little particles, we can’t even be sure of where they are or where they are going. Measuring one of their parameters clouds the observation of the other. Not fair! And further, unless we do measure them, the electron may just be anywhere. A probability function is our best guess on where it may be. We see delving into the ‘small’ shows a tricky non-classical view, but things get even hairier.

Let’s look at the bigger picture, our universe. Measurements indicate it’s growing in size and its growth is accelerating. Perhaps surprisingly, there is an ambient temperature of about 2.7 degrees Kelvin. But temperature is an indication of energy. What emits or carries this energy and where did it come from? We’re pretty sure it came from the Big Bang, but we’re not sure what this event was. Nor are we positively sure how we got from that time to this time. Various inflationary steps may have occurred perhaps all of which were driven by some desire to increase entropy. And then, what about time. Is time an inviolate unidirectional dimension? Worm holes may provide a chance to travel in time, but we have yet to see anyone from the future popping by. When looking at the expansion of our view, it is just as freaky as the shrunken version. No wonder theoretical physicists seem to always have a perplexed look.

And how does this all come together? Well, aside from the fact that it is the existence in which we find ourselves, there is nothing definite. But imagine a superstructure of strings, small and large, open and closed. These perplexing little entities can vibrate with special harmonics and purportedly give rise to what we call an electron or a graviton or some field effect. These strings may fill the space that Newton saw as black nothingness but still we can’t prove this as we can’t yet see any. They may even be the reason why some people consider the universe and ourselves to be a holographic image being played out from a lower dimensional frame. Now that’s neat stuff for a cocktail party.

Well, this book on the cosmos will guide the reader through the popular and likeliest hypothesis in theoretical physics today. Illustrative examples and experiments provide wonderful substance to esoteric princeps. Picture Bart Simpson cruising on a skate board to the Andromeda galaxy to pick up some fish and chips. Or there are Mulder and Scully of X-Files notoriety who get mysterious packages mailed to them from aliens. Classical mechanics is intertwined with string theory and teleportation. The gist is there but the breadth of this book, like the cosmos, can be daunting.

Now there could still be a problem if you read this book and then attend a party. The problem is that others in attendance may be equally or better versed. And sadly, many of the enclosed arguments surrounding string theory rest on the laurels of mathematical gurus that say the ‘new’ equations solve some trite detail. Though there are many references, this hearsay doesn’t really support the conjectures. And face it, any party gets pretty stale very quick when the conversation becomes a ‘he said’, ‘she said’, affair.

So anyway, you’ve read Brian Greene’s book on The Fabric of the Cosmos and you’re now ready for a cocktail party or two. You can wow them with your grasp of black holes and entropic progression. You might even get some mileage from telling everyone that we actually live in a universe of ten or so dimensions and that we just can’t quite yet detect the other 6 or 7 or whichever. And who can say you’re wrong? Even Brian admits that there is a lot of conjecture and precious little evidence in the beauty of our cosmos. So go ahead, read about the cosmos and start on the road to being a bona fide theoretical physicist.

Read more reviews on Amazon.com.

Review by Mark Mortimer.

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Galaxy Stripped Clear of Star Forming Material

Image credit: NOAO
New observations from the WIYN 3.5-meter telescope on Kitt Peak show striking visual evidence for a galaxy being stripped bare of its star-forming material by its violent ongoing encounter with the hot gas in the center of a galaxy cluster.

This extremely disruptive process is believed to be a major influence on the evolution of galaxies and their star-forming ability over time, but direct observational evidence has been more circumstantial than incontrovertible.

A new three-color composite image of spiral galaxy NGC 4402, taken as the galaxy falls into the Virgo galaxy cluster, shows several key lines of evidence of an ongoing interaction, according to a presentation today in Denver at the 204th meeting of the American Astronomical Society.

NGC 4402 is located more than 50 million light years from Earth, in the midst of the relatively nearby Virgo cluster. As the galaxy moves toward the center of the cluster (located out of the image toward the bottom left), it experiences a ?wind? from the hot cluster gas, which can reach temperatures of millions of degrees.

?This hot wind strips out the much cooler gas and dust in the galaxy. This is important because the gas is raw material for new stars, and once this gas is stripped, the galaxy can no longer form new stars and becomes ?dead? in a sense,? says Hugh Crowl of Yale University, New Haven, CT, lead author of the paper. ?We see at least four distinct lines of evidence for declaring that this ram-pressure stripping process is cleaning out this infalling spiral galaxy.?

* First, the dust disk appears to be truncated, meaning that the light from stars extends out well beyond where gas and dust is observed. ?Since we believe that stars are born in clouds of gas and dust, this suggests that some of the material must have been stripped from the galaxy after the stars were born,? Crowl explains.
* Second, the dusty disk appears to be ?bowed? upward; that is, it has been bent by the wind blowing from the southeast (from the lower left of the image).
* Third, it appears that the light emitted by the north side of the stellar disk has been reddened and dimmed by dust that has been pushed up in front of it by the pressure of the cluster gas. Simultaneously, the dust to the south of the disk has been removed, revealing young blue stars glowing behind it.
* Finally, some of the most unusual features of NGC 4402 are the linear filaments of dust to the south of its main disk. ?These remarkable filaments originate in clumps that appear to be the densest remnants of the now displaced disk of the galaxy,? Crowl says.

The filaments are being ?ablated,? or stripped away, in an outside-in fashion, similar to the process observed in much smaller filamentary features in hot star-forming nebula such as the Eagle Nebula and Pelican Nebula. The hot galaxy cluster wind strips away the outer layers of the cloud, and the dust from these layers is then pushed away. In one case (the eastern or leftmost filament), ?we can see that the wind has either triggered star formation toward the tip of one of these dense clumps or exposed an already-existing star forming region,? Crowl adds.

The bright blue clusters of young stars in the bottom left region of the galaxy?s disk is further evidence of recently triggered star formation.

?This image clearly shows galactic disruption on a grand scale,? Crowl adds. ?It gives us much more confidence that this widely postulated process truly plays a significant role in shaping the evolution of galaxies in clusters.?

This imaging data was obtained with the help of the WIYN Tip-Tilt module, an adaptive optics device that uses a movable mirror to provide first-order compensation for the jittery motion of the incoming image caused by variable atmospheric conditions and telescope vibrations.

This result will be presented in poster 80.12 at the AAS meeting, located in the Ballroom poster session from 9:20 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Co-authors of the paper are Jeff Kenney (Yale), J.H. van Gorkom (Columbia University), and B. Vollmer (CDS, Strasbourg).

The Wisconsin-Indiana-Yale-NOAO (WIYN) 3.5-meter telescope is located at Kitt Peak National Observatory, 55 miles southwest of Tucson, AZ. Kitt Peak National Observatory is part of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation (NSF).

Original Source: NOAO News Release