Posted on by Fraser Cain

Early Oceans Might Have Had Little Oxygen

Image credit: NASA
As two rovers scour Mars for signs of water and the precursors of life, geochemists have uncovered evidence that Earth’s ancient oceans were much different from today’s. The research, published in this week’s issue of the journal Science, cites new data that shows that Earth’s life-giving oceans contained less oxygen than today’s and could have been nearly devoid of oxygen for a billion years longer than previously thought. These findings may help explain why complex life barely evolved for billions of years after it arose.

The scientists, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and affiliated with the University of Rochester, have pioneered a new method that reveals how ocean oxygen might have changed globally. Most geologists agree there was virtually no oxygen dissolved in the oceans until about 2 billion years ago, and that they were oxygen-rich during most of the last half-billion years. But there has always been a mystery about the period in between.

Geochemists developed ways to detect signs of ancient oxygen in particular areas, but not in the Earth’s oceans as a whole. The team’s method, however, can be extrapolated to grasp the nature of all oceans around the world.

“This is the best direct evidence that the global oceans had less oxygen during that time,” says Gail Arnold, a doctoral student of earth and environmental sciences at the University of Rochester and lead author of the research paper.

Adds Enriqueta Barrera, program director in NSF’s division of earth sciences, “This study is based on a new approach, the application of molybdenum isotopes, which allows scientists to ascertain global perturbations in ocean environments. These isotopes open a new door to exploring anoxic ocean conditions at times across the geologic record.”

Arnold examined rocks from northern Australia that were at the floor of the ocean over a billion years ago, using the new she had method developed by her and co-authors, Jane Barling and Ariel Anbar. Previous researchers had drilled down several meters into the rock and tested its chemical composition, confirming it had kept original information about the oceans safely preserved. The team members brought those rocks back to their labs where they used newly developed technology -called a Multiple Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer-to examine the molybdenum isotopes within the rocks.

The element molybdenum enters the oceans through river runoff, dissolves in seawater, and can stay dissolved for hundreds of thousands of years. By staying in solution so long, molybdenum mixes well throughout the oceans, making it an excellent global indicator. It is then removed from the oceans into two kinds of sediments on the seafloor: those that lie beneath waters, oxygen-rich and those that are oxygen-poor.

Working with coauthor Timothy Lyons of the University of Missouri, the Rochester team examined samples from the modern seafloor, including the rare locations that are oxygen-poor today. They learned that the chemical behavior of molybdenum’s isotopes in sediments is different depending on the amount of oxygen in the overlying waters. As a result, the chemistry of molybdenum isotopes in the global oceans depends on how much seawater is oxygen-poor. They also found that the molybdenum in certain kinds of rocks records this information about ancient oceans. Compared to modern samples, measurements of the molybdenum chemistry in the rocks from Australia point to oceans with much less oxygen.

How much less oxygen is the question. A world full of anoxic oceans could have serious consequences for evolution. Eukaryotes, the kind of cells that make up all organisms except bacteria, appear in the geologic record as early as 2.7 billion years ago. But eukaryotes with many cells-the ancestors of plants and animals- did not appear until a half billion years ago, about the time the oceans became rich in oxygen. With paleontologist Andrew Knoll of Harvard University, Anbar previously advanced the hypothesis that an extended period of anoxic oceans may be the key to why the more complex eukaryotes barely eked out a living while their prolific bacterial cousins thrived. Arnold’s study is an important step in testing this hypothesis.

“It’s remarkable that we know so little about the history of our own planet’s oceans,” says Anbar. “Whether or not there was oxygen in the oceans is a straightforward chemical question that you’d think would be easy to answer. It shows just how hard it is to tease information from the rock record and how much more there is for us to learn about our origins.”

Figuring out just how much less oxygen was in the oceans in the ancient past is the next step. The scientists plan to continue studying molybdenum chemistry to answer that question, with continuing support from NSF and NASA, the agencies that supported the initial work. The information will not only shed light on our own evolution, but may help us understand the conditions we should look for as we search for life beyond Earth.

Original Source: NSF News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Terraforming Mars One Piece at a Time

Image credit: NASA
Locally, Earth has its habitable extremes: Antarctica, the Sahara desert, the Dead Sea, Mount Etna. Globally, our blue planet is positioned in the solar system’s habitable zone, or ‘Goldilocks’ region where the temperature and pressure are just right to support liquid water and life. Across the borders from this goldilocks zone orbit our two neighbors: the runaway greenhouse planet, Venus–which in goldilocks’ terms is ‘too hot’–and the frigid red planet, Mars, which is ‘too cold’.

With an average global temperature of -55 C, Mars is a very cold planet. The standard models for warming Mars raise this average temperature with greenhouse gases first, then plant cold-adapted crops and photosynthetic microbes. This terraforming model includes various refinements such as orbital mirrors and chemical factories which pour out fluorocarbons. Eventually with the help of biology, industrialization, and time, the atmosphere would begin to get thicker (the current martian atmosphere is 99% thinner than the Earth’s). To terraform Mars, depending on the choice and concentration of greenhouse gases used, can take many decades to centuries before an astronaut might begin to lift a visor and for the first time, breathe martian air. Such proposals would initiate the first conscious effort at planetary engineeering, and aim to change the global environment into one less hostile to life as we know it terrestrially.

Another version to these global changes is a local one familiar to those who have trekked the Sahara. Occasionally life blossoms into a desert oasis. A local strategy to change Mars, according to biologist Omar Pensado Diaz, director of the Mex-Areohab project, can best be compared to transforming Mars one oasis at a time. The minimum size of the oasis extends to the diameter of a dome-shaped plastic cover, much like a greenhouse with a space heater. In this way, microterraforming is the smaller alternative for a planet that otherwise is an open system leaking to space. Diaz contrasts the way a physicist might change Mars with industrial tools to the hothouse methods of a biologist.

Diaz talked with Astrobiology Magazine about what it might mean to remodel Mars with tiny stadiums, until they grow into lush, desert oases.

Astrobiology Magazine (AM) : Would it be correct to conclude that you are studying the differences between a global and local terraforming strategy?

Omar Pensado Diaz (OPD): I am looking forward to integrating the models, rather focusing on their differences. Global terraforming, or warming a planet with super greenhouse gases, is a strategy or model conceived from the perspective of physics; while the model I propose is seen from a biological point of view.

I am talking about a model called microterraforming, which will be possible with a tool named the Minimal Unit of Terraforming (MUT). The concept of a Minimal Unit of Terraforming is explained as an ecosystem running as the fundamental unit of nature. A MUT comprises a group of living organisms and their physical and chemical environment where they live, but applied to the development of a biological colonization and remodeling process on Mars.

An artist’s conception of how a terraformed Mars, with an ocean spanning most of its northern hemisphere, might look from orbit.Mars, as terraformed by Michael Carroll. In 1991 this image was used on the front cover of the ‘Making Mars Habitable’ issue of Nature.

Technically speaking, it is a pressurized dome-shaped greenhouse that would contain and protect an interior ecosystem. This complex would not be isolated from the surroundings; on the contrary it would be constantly in contact with it, but in a controlled way.

What is important is gas exchange between the MUT Units and the Martian environment, so the ecosystem itself has a dramatic role. The objective of this process is to generate photosynthesis. Here is where we must consider plants as covering the surface and chemical factories processing the atmosphere.

AM: What would be the advantages of working locally, using your model of an oasis in a desert? By biological analogy to a fundamental terraforming unit, do you mean like how biological cells have an internal equilibrium, but also exchanges with an external one that differs for the whole host?

OPD: The advantages I find in this model are that we can initiate a terraforming process faster, but in stages, that is why it is microterraforming.

But the major and most important advantage is that we can make plant life begin to participate in this process with the help of technology. Life is information and it processes the information around it, beginning an adaptation process to the inner conditions of the unit. Here we maintain that life has plasticity and that it not only adapts to the surrounding conditions, but also it adapts the environment to its own circumstances. In the language of genetics, this means that there are an interaction between the genotype and the environment, producing the adaptation of phenotypical expressions to the dominant conditions.

Now, in a small environment such as a Unit with a diameter of approximately 15 or 20 yards, we could have a much warmer environment than outside the Unit.

AM: Describe what a Unit might look like.

OPD: A transparent, plastic-fiber, double-layered dome. The dome would generate a greenhouse effect inside that would raise significantly the temperature during the daytime and would protect the inside from low temperatures at night. Furthermore, the atmosphere’s pressure would be higher inside by 60 to 70 millibars. That would be enough to allow the plants’ photosynthetic processes as well as liquid water.

In thermodynamic terms, we are now talking about a lack of equilibrium. In order to reactivate Mars, we need to create a thermodynamic disequilibrium. The Unit would generate what is needed first, like ground degassing from temperature differences. Such process is an objective along with the path to a global strategy.

Strictly speaking, the Units would be like carbon dioxide capturing traps; they would release oxygen and generate biomass. The oxygen would then be released to the atmosphere periodically. A valve system would release gases to the outside and once the inner atmospheric pressure had decreased up to 40 or 35 milibars, the valves would close automatically. And others would open and, by suction, gas would get inside the Unit and the original atmospheric pressure would level off. This system would not only allow the release of oxygen but also the release of other gases.

AM: In such an oasis model, it is an open system, but would it have no effect on regional conditions. In other words, would local leakage get diluted, and in those cases, how is microterraforming different from just operating greenhouses?

OPD: The greenhouses–in this case the Minimal Unit of Terraforming–are thought to begin a gradual change on Mars. The difference depends on its range of action, since that’s where the microterraforming process begins. Besides, it depend on how you look at it, because with this method we are trying to repeat the evolution pattern that once was successful on Earth, in order to transform the planet’s atmosphere into another and to make Mars enter in a stage of thermodynamic disequilibrium.

The major advantage is that we can control a terraforming process at a micro-scale; we can turn Mars into a similar place to the Earth faster and make it interact with the surrounding environment at the same time. That is the most important aspect of it: to get ahead with faster processes. As I said before, the idea is to follow the same evolution pattern that developed on Earth soon after photosynthesis appeared. There were terrestrial plants that remodeled and terraformed the Earth, generating carbon dixoide from the surface and distributing it to the atmosphere that existed at that time.

Drs. Chris McKay and Robert Zubrin presented an interesting model that proposes to collocate three large orbital mirrors. The mirrors would reflect the Sun’s light to the south pole of Mars and sublimate the dry ice (carbon dioxide snow) layer in order to increase the greenhouse effect and then accelerate the planet’s global warming.

Such mirrors would be the size of Texas.

I think that if the same infrastructure used in those mirrors were instead used to build domes for a Minimal Unit of Terraforming over the Martian surface, we would be generating higher degassing rates and oxygenating the atmosphere faster. In addition, part of the surface would be warmed anyway, since the Units would hold solar heat, not reflect it from the surface.

The lack of liquid water for the ecosystems inside the Units is debatable; however, a variant of a proposal by Dr. Adam Bruckner from the University of Washington, can be used. It consists on using a zeolite (mineral catalyst) condenser; then, extracting water from the moisture of incoming air. Water would pour inside daily. Again, we would be activating some stages of a hydrological cycle, capturing carbon dioxide, releasing gases to the atmosphere and making the surface a more fertile ground. We would be doing an accelerated terraforming on a very small part of Mars, but if we put hundreds of those Units, the degassing effects over the surface and atmosphere will have planetary repercussions.

AM: When closed biospheres have operated on Earth like Biosphere 2, problems arose with–for instance–oxygen loss due to combination with rock to form carbonates. Are there examples today of large-scale, self-sustaining systems on Earth?

OPD: Large-scale, self-sustaining systems built by humans? I don’t know any, but life itself is a self-sustaining system that takes from the surrounding environment what it needs to work.

That was the problem of closed biospheres, they were not able to make a feedback circuit as it happens on Earth. Furthermore, the system I propose would not be closed; it would interact with the environment of Mars in intervals, by releasing part of what would have been processed by the action of photosynthesis while incorporating new gases. The Minimal Unit of Terraforming will not be a closed system.

If we take into account James Lovelock’s ‘Gaia theory’, we could consider Earth as a large-scale, self-sustaining system, because the biogeochemical cycles are active–a situation that is not happening today on Mars. A large portion of its oxygen is combined with its surface, giving the planet an oxidized character. In this sense, inside the Minimal Unit of Terraforming, the biogeochemical cycles would be reactivated. These domes would liberate oxygen and carbonates, among others, so the release would begin to flow gradually to the planet’s atmosphere.

AM: The quickest method often cited for global terraforming is to introduce fluorocarbons into the Martian atmosphere. With small percentage changes, big temperature and pressure changes follow. This relies on solar interaction. Would a closed bubble have this mechanism available, for instance if ultraviolet light is not penetrating into the domes?

OPD: We are talking about an alternate way from that–not using fluorocarbons and other greenhouse gases. The method we propose captures carbon dioxide for biomass increase, liberates oxygen and inner heat storage, all to generate a carbon dioxide degassing inside the Unit. Other gases trapped in the ground today would be released to the Martian atmosphere to densify it gradually. Actually, the direct exposure of an ecosystem to ultraviolet rays would be counterproductive for the carbon dioxide capture, biomass formation and ground gas generation. Precisely, the dome functions to protect an ecosystem from cold and ultraviolet radiation, as well as maintaining its inner pressure.

Now, the dome would be an important heat trap and a thermal insulator. Making the earlier cell analogy, the dome is like a biological membrane that drives the local ecosystem to thermodynamic disequilibrium. That disequilibrium would allow life to develop.

AM: Would high local concentrations of greenhouse gases (like methane, carbon dioxide or CFCs) be locally toxic before having any effects globally?

OPD: Life can adapt to conditions that are toxic for us; an elevated carbon dioxide concentration can be beneficial for plants, and even increase their production, or, as with methane, there are some methanogenic organisms that require this gas for their subsistence.

Such gases are appropriate for raising the global temperature; on the other hand, carbon dioxide is the most appropriate gas for plant life. The aim is to reproduce evolutionary patterns leading to a gradual adaptation of these organisms to a new environment, and the adaptation of the environment to these organism.

AM: Global terraforming on Mars has time ranges that vary between a century to even long times. Are there ways to estimate whether local efforts might accelerate habitability, using the oasis model you suggest?

OPD: That will depend on the plants’ photosynthetic efficiency and their capability to adapt themselves to the environment while adapting the environment. However, we can consider two appraisals: one local and one global.

In a more explicit way, those appraisals can be first measured on each Minimal Unit of Terraforming through its photosynthetic efficiency, oxygenation speed, carbon dioxide capture and degassing of the dome’s surface. This rate would depend on the solar incidence and the greenhouse effect. At a global level, the speed of the planet’s remodelling would depend on how many Minimal Units could be installed all over the Martian surface. That is to say, if there exist more Minimal Units of Terraforming, the planet’s transformation would be completed faster.

I’d like to clarify something I think is important at this point. The major achievement would be to turn Mars into a green planet before humans could inhabit it in the way we do on Earth today. It would be extraordinary to see how plant life responds, first inside the Minimal Unit of Terraforming and then, when those machines had finished their cycle and life emerges as an explosion to the exterior, to see the unstoppable speciation that would take place, since life would respond to the environment and the environment would respond to life.

And so, we may watch trees, such as pines that on Earth have a large and straight timber. On Mars we may have a more pliable species, one strong enough to resist low temperatures and blowing winds. As photosynthetic machines, the pines would be fulfilling their role as planetary transformers, keeping water, minerals and carbon dioxide for the accumulation of biomass.

AM: What future plans do you have for the research?

OPD: I want to initiate partial simulations of the Martian conditions. This is needed to probe and improve the operation of the Minimal Unit of Terraforming, as well as the physiological response of plants in such conditions. In other words, rehearsals.

This is a multidisciplinary and inter-institutional investigation, so the participation of engineers, biologists and genetic specialists will be necessary as well as other scientific organizations interested in the subject. I must say this is just the first attempt; it is a theory of what could be done and one that we could try on our own planet, for instance, by fighting against the aggressive desert spreading, by rehabilitating grounds and creating obstacles to stop its gradual advance.

Original Source: Astrobiology Magazine

Here’s an article about a similar project. Remember Biosphere 2?

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Huge Submillimeter Instrument in the Works

Image credit: Caltech
The California Institute of Technology and Cornell University are in the planning stages for a new 25-meter telescope to be built in Chile. The submillimeter telescope will cost an estimated $60 million and will be nearly two times larger in diameter than the largest submillimeter telescope currently in existence.

The first step of the plan, which is being announced today jointly by Caltech and Cornell, commits the two institutions to a $2-million study, says Jonas Zmuidzinas, a physics professor at Caltech who is leading the Institute’s part of the collaboration. The telescope is projected for a 2012 completion date on a high site in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, and will significantly ramp up Caltech’s research in submillimeter astronomy.

Scientists from Cornell, Caltech, and Caltech’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) will be participating in the telescope study, including Caltech faculty members Andrew Blain, Sunil Golwala, Andrew Lange, Tom Phillips, Anthony Readhead, Anneila Sargent, and others.

“We are very much looking forward to working with our Cornell colleagues on this project,” says Zmuidzinas.

At Cornell, the participants will include professors Riccardo Giovanelli, Terry Herter, Gordon Stacey, and Bob Brown.

Submillimeter wavelength astronomy allows the study of a number of astrophysical phenomena that do not emit much visible or infrared light. The new telescope will observe stars and planets forming from swirling disks of gas and dust, will make measurements to determine the composition of the molecular clouds from which the stars are born, and could even discover large numbers of galaxies undergoing huge bursts of star formation in the very distant universe.

Also, the 25-meter telescope could be used to study the origin of large-scale structure in the universe.

“So far, we have gotten just a small taste of what there is to learn at submillimeter wavelengths,” says Zmuidzinas. “This telescope will be a huge step forward for the field.”

The new telescope is poised to take advantage of the rapid development of sensitive superconducting detectors, an area in which Zmuidzinas and his Caltech/JPL colleagues have been making important contributions. The new superconducting detectors enable large submillimeter cameras to be built, which will produce very sensitive panoramic images of the submillimeter sky.

The 25-meter telescope is a natural progression in Caltech and JPL’s longstanding interest in submillimeter astronomy. Caltech already operates the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory (CSO), a 10.4-meter telescope constructed and operated with funding from the National Science Foundation, with Tom Phillips serving as director. The telescope is fitted with sensitive submillimeter detectors and cameras, many of which were developed in collaboration with JPL, making it ideal for seeking out and observing the diffuse gases and their constituent molecules, crucial to understanding star formation.

The advantages of the new telescope will be fourfold. First, due to the larger size of its mirror and its more accurate surface, the 25-meter telscope should provide six to 12 times the light-gathering ability of the CSO, depending on the exact wavelength. Second, the larger diameter and better surface will result in much sharper images of the sky. Third, the large new cameras will provide huge advantages over those currently available.

Finally, the 16,500-foot elevation of the Atacama Desert will provide an especially dry sky for maximum effectiveness. Submillimeter wavelengths (as short as two-tenths of a millimeter) are strongly absorbed by the water vapor in the atmosphere. For maximum effectiveness, a submillimeter telescope must be located at a very high, very dry altitude–the higher the better–or best of all, in space.

However, while the idea of a large (10-meter) submillimeter telescope in space is being considered by NASA and JPL, it is still more than a decade away. Meanwhile, existing space telescopes such as the Hubble and the Spitzer work at shorter wavelengths, in the visible and infrared, respectively.

In 2007, the European Space Agency plans to launch the 3.5-meter Herschel Space Observatory, which will be the first general-purpose submillimeter observatory in space. NASA is participating in this project, and scientists at JPL and Caltech are providing detectors and components for the science instruments.

“It is a very exciting time for submillimeter astronomy,” says Zmuidzinas. “We are making rapid progress on all fronts–in detectors, instruments, and new facilities–and this is leading to important scientific discoveries.”

Original Source: Caltech News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Bad Astronomy Debunks Mars Face

Do you think the “Face on Mars” was created by aliens? Perhaps you might want to read a recent article by the Bad Astronomer, Phil Plait. In this multi-page guide, Plait dismantles the NASA conspiracy claims of Richard Hoagland, setting the record straight. It’s great reading, and does a good job of explaining some larger issues, like why it’s hard to get true colour images of Mars, and how you can get funny patterns in almost anything you look at. You should also check out Plait’s previous defense against the Moon landing hoaxes. And while you’re at it, buy his book? Bad Astronomy.

Nice work Phil.

Fraser Cain
Publisher
Universe Today

Posted on by Fraser Cain

NASA Learns More About Bone Loss in Space

Image credit: NASA
A new NASA-funded study revealed how bone loss increases the risk of injuries, highlighting the need for additional measures to ensure the health of spacecraft crews.The study provides new information about bone loss caused by prolonged spaceflight. The study is in the online version of the Journal of Bone and Mineral Research.

The research team was from the University of California San Francisco (UCSF) and Baylor College of Medicine, Houston. The team used three-dimensional X-ray computed tomography (CT) to study the effect of prolonged weightlessness on the bone mineral density and structure of the hip in a group of 14 American and Russian International Space Station crewmembers. The crewmembers spent from four to six months onboard the Station. The research suggests additional conditioning exercises and other countermeasures may be necessary to prevent bone mineral loss.

“This study underlines the importance of continuing to develop countermeasures to preserve musculoskeletal conditioning in long-duration space travelers,” said Guy Fogleman, director of Bioastronautics Research in NASA’s Office of Biological and Physical Research, Washington. “Results of this research, which may aid people on Earth who suffer for similar conditions including osteoporosis, are being shared with the medical community,” he added.

This study is the first to use CT imaging to three-dimensionally quantify spaceflight-related bone loss in the hip and to estimate changes in hipbone strength. Previous studies used a two-dimensional imaging technology called dual X-ray absorptiometry.

The CT measurements in the hip were performed pre- and post-flight to measure bone loss in the porous bone in the interior of the hip and in the dense outer shell of the hipbone. On average, the Station crew lost interior bone at a rate of 2.2 to 2.7 percent for each month in space and outer bone at a rate of 1.6 to 1.7 percent per month.

“Our study demonstrates that bone loss occurs in the Space Station crewmembers at a rate comparable to that observed almost a decade before in the crew of the Russian Mir spacecraft,” said Thomas Lang, UCSF associate professor of radiology and principal investigator on the study. “The lack of clear progress in the interval between Mir and Station missions indicates a need for continued efforts to improve musculoskeletal conditioning regimens during longer space missions, such as those proposed for the moon and Mars,” Lang said.

The investigators used information from the CT images to estimate changes in the strength of the hipbone. They found on average the hipbone strength declined by 2.5 percent for each month of flight. Since the amount of bone loss increases with mission length, crewmembers on multiyear explorations may face increased risk of fracture upon return to Earth gravity. In addition, those who do not recover the lost bone may be at increased risk of fracture as they age.

The researchers also analyzed loss of density in vertebrae (back bones). Vertebrae, along with the hip, are the skeletal sites associated most with serious osteoporotic fractures in the elderly. The study found on average, the Station crew lost vertebral bone at a rate of 0.8 to 0.9 percent per month, which was consistent with data from earlier long-duration missions.

To view the study on the Internet, visit:

http://www.jbmr-online.org

For information about space research on the Internet, visit:

http://spaceresearch.nasa.gov/

Original Source: NASA News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

What’s that Bunny on Mars?

Image credit: NASA/JPL
Like a rabbit in a hat, the identity of an oddity that looks like “bunny ears” in a picture from Mars has eluded the science and engineering teams.

The public, also fascinated with the mysterious object, has asked in a slew of e-mails: What is it?

It is a yellowish object measuring about 4 to 5 centimeters (about 2 inches) long that made its debut when Opportunity’s eyes welcomed Earth to a new neighborhood on Mars in her mission success panoramic image. Meridiani Planum is a landscape unlike any other stop on our decades-long tour of the red planet. Still, it wasn’t the conspicuous bedrock outcropping near the horizon that initially fascinated many people. It was the “bunny ears.”

Bemused by Bunny
Temporarily sharing a large workroom in the building that houses rover mission control, engineers were still meticulously reconstructing the events of entry, descent and landing and scientists were anxiously poring over the pictures their most recently successful twin was returning.

Jeff Johnson, a scientist from the U.S. Geological Survey and a member of the panoramic camera team, heard from others about a small, fuzzy-looking object in the mission success panorama. Viewing the image on his computer screen, Johnson wondered aloud, “What in the world is this?” Colleagues gathered around his computer table, trying to make sense of the oddity.

Most team members agreed that the “bunny ears” had been, at some point, part of the rover or its lander. The yellowish color led many to conclude that the object was a piece of airbag material.

The Mars Pathfinder mission set a precedent in 1997 for puzzling pieces around the landing site. An object dubbed “Pinky” caught the attention of the Pathfinder science team and the public. Although never positively identified, it was thought to be a piece of Kapton tape – an adhesive used often in aerospace applications.

How Did They Track the Mysterious Object?
To further complicate the Meridiani mystery, when Johnson tried to image the quirky “ears” at higher resolution, they had vanished from where they were originally spotted – about 4.5 meters (15 feet) from the lander. Johnson, intrigued by their disappearance, was good-naturedly assigned by Steve Squyres (the mission’s principal investigator) to “track the bunny.” He discovered that the object was visible in navigation camera images acquired on landing day – but lying a meter (about 3 feet) further from the lander, up the crater slope. Using JPL-designed software, scientists are able to measure the “bunny ears” in each image where they appear. The object is about the same size in every image.

“After looking at pictures of Opportunity’s lander up-close, I think we might have, again, spotted the bunny,” said Johnson. “It looks as if the object has been blown under the north-facing egress ramp.”

Johnson and his colleagues believe that a light wind whirling from the north over Opportunity’s Challenger Memorial Station landing site could have transported the article. Its small size indicates that it would be easily carried by even a light wind. The three-color Pancam images acquired of the object as part of the mission success panorama even showed some evidence that the object moved slightly between images from the gentle wind. Johnson estimates that the breeze pushed the “bunny ears” an estimated 5 to 6 meters (about 16 to 20 feet).

“There’s no evidence of a mark that it left in the soil as it moved,” Johnson noted. “It was light enough and small enough to not leave any footprints’.”

If Not a Bunny, Then What?
Without seeing the “bunny ears” object up close with our own eyes, it’s difficult to provide a positive identification. However, scientists and engineers are quick to deflate the myth that it is anything inexplicable.

“Our team believes that this odd-looking feature is a piece of soft material that definitely came from our vehicle,” said Rob Manning, lead engineer for entry, descent and landing. “We cannot say exactly where it came from but we can say that there are several possibilities: cotton insulation, Vectran covers and wraps from the airbag, Zylon bridle tensioning ties, or felt insulation from the gas generators…. The list goes on. We do not think this is parachute material, however, due to its color (it does not look blue enough to be the undyed nylon or red enough to be the dyed nylon).

Knowing the possibility that we could have left a bit of a mess nearby, once we saw this feature we only marveled at how clean everything looked and we have not given it another thought. We try to make sure that bits do not fall off, but they do, and we were not at all surprised.”

Johnson took the visual color clues a step further. He measured the visible light spectrum from the Pancam image of the “bunny ears” and compared it to the spectrum of a sample of airbag material. The nearly identical spectra are distinct from typical martian soil or rock spectra and lead Johnson to believe that the “bunny ears” are, indeed, a wayward piece of airbag material or something similar.

Original Source: Astrobiology Magazine

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Opportunity Sees Phobos and Deimos

Image credit: NASA/JPL
NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers have become eclipse watchers.

Though the Viking landers in the 1970s observed the shadow of one of Mars’ two moons, Phobos, moving across the landscape, and Mars Pathfinder in 1997 observed Phobos emerge at night from the shadow of Mars, no previous mission has ever directly observed a moon pass in front of the Sun from the surface of another world.

The current rovers began their eclipse-watching campaign this month. Opportunity’s panoramic camera caught Mars’ smaller moon, Deimos, as a speck crossing the disc of the Sun on March 4. The same camera then captured an image of the larger moon, Phobos, grazing the edge of the Sun’s disc on March 7.

Rover controllers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., are planning to use the panoramic cameras on both Opportunity and Spirit for several similar events in the next six weeks. Dr. Jim Bell of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., lead scientist for those cameras, expects the most dramatic images may be the one of Phobos planned for March 10.

“Scientifically, we’re interested in timing these events to possibly allow refinement of the orbits and orbital evolution of these natural satellites,” Bell said. “It’s also exciting, historic and just plain cool to be able to observe eclipses on another planet at all.”

Depending on the orientation of Phobos as it passes between the Sun and the rovers, the images might also add new information about the elongated shape of that moon.

Phobos is about 27 kilometers long by about 18 kilometers across its smallest dimension (17 miles by 11 miles). Deimos’ dimensions are about half as much, but the pair’s difference in size as they appear from Mars’ surface is even greater, because Phobos travels in a much lower orbit.

The rovers’ panoramic cameras observe the Sun nearly every martian day as a way to gain information about how Mars’ atmosphere affects the sunlight. The challenge for the eclipse observations is in the timing. Deimos crosses the Sun’s disc in only about 50 to 60 seconds. Phobos moves even more quickly, crossing the Sun in only 20 to 30 seconds.

Scientists use the term “transit” for an eclipse in which the intervening body covers only a fraction of the more-distant body. For example, from Earth, the planet Venus will be seen to transit the Sun on June 8, for the first time since 1882. Transits of the Sun by Mercury and transits of Jupiter by Jupiter’s moons are more common observations from Earth.

From Earth, our Moon and the Sun have the appearance of almost identically sized discs in the sky, so the Moon almost exactly covers the Sun during a total solar eclipse. Because Mars is farther from the Sun than Earth is, the Sun looks only about two-thirds as wide from Mars as it does from Earth. However, Mars’ moons are so small that even Phobos covers only about half of the Sun’s disc during an eclipse seen from Mars.

JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA’s Office of Space Science, Washington, D.C.

Images of the March 4 and March 7 eclipses are available online at http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040308a.html. Other images from the rovers and additional information about the project are available from JPL at http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov and from Cornell University at http://athena.cornell.edu.

Original Source: NASA/JPL News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Now Spirit Finds Evidence of Past Water

Image credit: NASA/JPL
NASA’s Spirit has found hints of a water history in a rock at Mars’ Gusev Crater, but it is a very different type of rock than those in which NASA’s Opportunity found clues to a wet past on the opposite side of the planet.

A dark volcanic rock dubbed “Humphrey,” about 60 centimeters (2 feet) tall, shows bright material in interior crevices and cracks that looks like minerals crystallized out of water, Dr. Ray Arvidson of Washington University, St. Louis, reported at a NASA news briefing today at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. He is the deputy principal investigator for the rovers’ science instruments.

“If we found this rock on Earth, we would say it is a volcanic rock that had a little fluid moving through it,” Arvidson said. If this interpretation is correct, the fluid — water with minerals dissolved in it — may have been carried in the original magma that formed the rock or may have interacted with the rock later, he said.

The clues appear in an interior exposure of “Humphrey” where Spirit’s rock abrasion tool scraped away the rock’s surface to a depth of 2 millimeters (.08 inch). To gain more confidence that the bright material seen in cracks and pores is not dust that has intruded from the surface over the millenia, scientists intend to have Spirit grind more deeply into another dark rock, not yet selected. The bright material is not debris from the grinding process, said Stephen Gorevan of Honeybee Robotics, New York, lead scientist for the abrasion tool.

The amount of water suggested by the possible crystals in “Humphrey” is far less than what is indicated by the minerals and structures that Opportunity has revealed in rocks at Meridiani. Rover scientists announced the Opportunity findings earlier this week. “Mars is a diverse planet,” Arvidson said today.

Spirit is headed toward a crater nicknamed “Bonneville,” about 150 meters (500 feet) in diameter, where scientists hope to see rocks from beneath the region’s surface volcanic layer. Those rocks may tell yet a different story from an earlier era of Gusev Crater’s past.

At Meridiani Planum, Opportunity has finished taking a set of 114 microscope images of a rock called “Last Chance” to examine details of the rock’s layering structure. The sequence required more than 400 commands and more than 200 positions of Opportunity’s robotic arm, said Opportunity Mission Manager Matt Wallace of JPL. “Our activities are getting increasingly complex,” he noted.

Spirit completed its 60th martian day, or sol, at Gusev late Thursday. Opportunity completed its 40th sol at Meridiani at 9:32 a.m. Friday, PST. “Between the two rovers, we’ve had a terrific 100 days on Mars. This last week has been particularly exciting,” Wallace said.

A new color view, combining several frames from Opportunity’s panoramic camera, adds information about the rover’s likely destination after finishing work in and around the small crater where it landed. From partway up the inner slope of that 22-meter-diameter (72-foot-diameter) crater, the rover has an improved view of a crater nicknamed “Endurance,” about 10 times as big and about 700 meters (2,300 feet) to the east. “We can see features in the rim, maybe streaks, maybe layers,” said Dr. Jim Bell of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., lead scientist for both rovers? panoramic cameras.

The same new view across the flat plain of Meridiani also shows Opportunity?s jettisoned heat shield, a trail of marks left by the airbag bounces and a solitary dark rock about 40 centimeters (16 inches) across. Bell said, “Not only did we get incredibly lucky to get this hole-in-one in the crater, but on the way into the crater we hit with the airbags the only rock around.”

Both rovers carry magnets supplied by Denmark for experiments to analyze martian dust. Dust covers much of Mars’ surface and hangs in the atmosphere, occasionally rising into giant dust storms. One of the magnets is designed to exclude any magnetic dust particles from landing in the center of a target area. During Spirit’s time on Mars, dust has accumulated on other parts of the target while the center has remained “probably the cleanest area anywhere on the surface of the rover,” said Dr. Morten Madsen, science team member from the Center for Planetary Science, Copenhagen, Denmark.

“Most, if not all of the dust particles in the martian atmosphere are magnetic,” Madsen said. Another of the magnets is within reach of the rover’s robotic arm. Examination of dust on the target by instruments on the end of the arm will soon yield further information about the composition of the dust, he said.

JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA’s Office of Space Science, Washington, D.C. Images and additional information about the project are available from JPL at http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov and from Cornell University at http://athena.cornell.edu.

Original Source: NASA/JPL News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Spitzer Looks at a Stellar Nursary

Image credit: Spitzer
In a small nearby galaxy lies a luminous cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula, which houses a family of newborn stars. If not for the death of a massive star millions of years ago, this stellar nursery never would have formed.

The nebula, Henize 206, and the remnants of the exploding star that created it, are pictured in superb detail in a new image from NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope. Henize 206 sits just outside our own galaxy, the Milky Way, in a satellite galaxy 163,000 light-years away called the Large Magellanic Cloud. It is home to hundreds and possibly thousands of stars, ranging in age from two to 10 million years old.

“The image is a wonderful example of the cycle of birth and death that gives rise to stars throughout the universe,” said Dr. Varoujan Gorjian, a scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., and principal investigator for the latest observation.

As in other stellar nurseries, the stars in Henize 206 were created when a dying star, or supernova, exploded, shooting shock waves through clouds of cosmic gas and dust. The gas and dust were subsequently compressed, gravity kicked in, and stars were born. Eventually, some of the stars will die in a fiery blast, triggering another cycle of birth and death. This recycling of stellar dust and gas occurs across the universe. Earth’s own Sun descended from multiple generations of stars.

The new Spitzer picture provides a detailed snapshot of this universal phenomenon. By imaging Henize 206 in the infrared, Spitzer was able to see through blankets of dust that dominate visible light views. The resulting false-color image shows embedded young stars as bright white spots, and surrounding gas and dust in blue, green and red. Also revealed is a ring of green gas, which is the wake of the ancient supernova’s explosion.

“Before Spitzer, we were only seeing tantalizing hints of the newborn stars peeking through shrouds of dust,” Gorjian said.

These observations provide astronomers with a laboratory for understanding the early universe, and stellar birth and death cycles. Unlike large galaxies, the Large Magellanic Cloud has a quirk. The gas permeating it contains roughly 20 to 50 percent of the heavier elements, such as iron, possessed by the Sun and gas clouds in the Milky Way. This low-metallicity state approximates the early universe, allowing astronomers to catch a glimpse of what stellar life was like billions of years ago, when heavy metals were scarce.

Henize 206 was first catalogued in the early 1950s by Dr. Karl Henize (pronounced Hen-eyes), an astronomer who became a NASA astronaut. He flew aboard the Challenger Space Shuttle in 1985. He died in 1993 at age 66 while climbing Mount Everest.

Launched on August 25, 2003, from Cape Canaveral, Fla., the Spitzer Space Telescope is the fourth of NASA’s Great Observatories. The program includes the Hubble Space Telescope, Chandra X-ray Observatory and Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. JPL manages the Spitzer Space Telescope mission for NASA’s Office of Space Science, Washington. Science operations are conducted at the Spitzer Science Center at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, which manages JPL.

For information about NASA and agency exploration programs on the Internet, visit http://www.nasa.gov. The Spitzer picture is available at http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu and http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov. For information about the Spitzer Space Telescope, visit http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu.

Original Source: NASA News Release

Posted on by Fraser Cain

Saturn’s X-Ray Mystery

Image credit: Chandra
The first clear detection of X-rays from the giant, gaseous planet Saturn has been made with NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory. Chandra’s image shows that the X-rays are concentrated near Saturn’s equator, a surprising result since Jupiter’s X-ray emission is mainly concentrated near the poles. Existing theories cannot easily explain the intensity or distribution of Saturn’s X-rays.

Chandra observed Saturn for about 20 hours in April of 2003. The spectrum, or distribution with energy of the X-rays, was found to be very similar to that of X-rays from the Sun.

“This indicates that Saturn’s X-ray emission is due to the scattering of solar X-rays by Saturn’s atmosphere,” said Jan-Uwe Ness, of the University of Hamburg in Germany and lead author of a paper discussing the Saturn results in an upcoming issue of Astronomy & Astrophysics. “It’s a puzzle, since the intensity of Saturn’s X-rays requires that Saturn reflects X-rays fifty times more efficiently than the Moon.”

The observed 90 megawatts of X-ray power from Saturn’s equatorial region is roughly consistent with previous observations of the X-radiation from Jupiter’s equatorial region. This suggests that both giant, gaseous planets reflect solar X-rays at unexpectedly high rates. Further observations of Jupiter will be needed to test this possibility.

The weak X-radiation from Saturn’s south-polar region presents another puzzle (the north pole was blocked by Saturn’s rings during this observation). Saturn’s magnetic field, like that of Jupiter, is strongest near the poles. X-radiation from Jupiter is brightest at the poles because of auroral activity due to the enhanced interaction of high-energy particles from the Sun with its magnetic field. Since spectacular ultraviolet polar auroras have been observed to occur on Saturn, Ness and colleagues expected that Saturn’s south pole might be bright in X-rays. It is not clear whether the auroral mechanism does not produce X-rays on Saturn, or for some reason concentrates the X-rays at the north pole.

“Another interesting result of the observation is that Saturn’s rings were not detected in X-rays,” noted Scott Wolk of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, MA, a coauthor of the paper. “This requires Saturn’s rings to be less efficient at scattering X-rays than the planet itself.”

The same team detected X-radiation from Saturn using the European Space Agency’s XMM-Newton Observatory. Although these observations could not locate the X-rays on Saturn’s disk, the intensity of the observed X-rays was very similar to what was found with Chandra and consistent with a marginal detection of X-rays from Saturn reported in 2000 using the German Roentgensatellite (ROSAT).

The research team, which used Chandra’s ACIS instrument to observed Saturn, also included J. Schmitt (Univ. of Hamburg) as well as Konrad Dennerl and Vadim Burwitz (Max Planck Institute, Garching Germany). NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., manages the Chandra program for NASA’s Office of Space Science, Washington. Northrop Grumman of Redondo Beach, Calif., formerly TRW, Inc., was the prime development contractor for the observatory. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory controls science and flight operations from the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Mass.

Original Source: Chandra News Release